The Decew Escarpment, often identified as a portion of the Niagara Escarpment is a beautiful conservation area within St. Catharines. The escarpment includes Decew Falls, the plateau of the Power Glen, and the surrounding forest area, however the focus of this report is on the area where the Decew Escarpment Tablelands Restoration Project has taken place and the valley and forest surrounding, which includes a section of the Bruce trail. Within image 1, the general boundaries of the restoration and outcomes of the project can be seen, and within Figure 2 the report focus boundaries can be viewed. The trail to enter this location can be accessed from Decew Road from two gates labeled 66C or 66B.

The conservation area has many diverse ecosystems both naturally occurring and assisted by human planting including meadows, forest, seasonal wetlands, alvars and more (Giants Rib Escarpment Education Network, 2014). The restoration process within the meadow of the Decew Escarpment was put in place to assist the natural environment with additional forest growth and prevention of invasive species. From 2009 to 2011, more than 20,000 trees and shrubs were planted on the Decew escarpment totalling around 10 acres of planting, as a part of the table lands restoration project to help local vegetation and wildlife thrive. This area is very diverse and an important part of the surrounding conservation area.

The Power Glen has been identified by The Niagara Escarpment Commission as an Escarpment Natural area (Plan, D. 2010). This in turn has led to the intended reinforcement of the valley lands as a part of the Power Glen Heritage District (Plan, D, 2010). Decew Falls has been identified as an ESA or environmentally sensitive area, and the Bruce Trail Plan, till 2025 has a goal of protecting the passageway of natural land throughout the Niagara Escarpment (Conservancy, B. T. Bruce Trail. 2019). Historically this section of land has been the focus of debate and human restoration and alteration. The Decew Falls forest had been subject to a 40 year debate between conservationists and Brock University which proposed subdivision planning in and around the ESA (Ho, Y. 2017). Additionally, Lake Moodie which is apart of the Lake Gibson reservoir system is an integral aspect of the area and will also be subject to discussion throughout the report. The area is historically and ecologically important, and the views and trails are breathtaking, consequently the fight to protect the area has begun and will inevitably continue.

Municipality: St. Catharines

Local area name: Glenridge

Other identifying names or descriptions: Decew Forests, Western Hill, Niagara Escarpment

Latitude and longitude: 43°06'55.3"N 79°15'54.4"W

Physical Dimensions:

Length: 551.28 m

Width: 504.23 m

Surface Area: 304,797.45 m²

Elevation:

185 m / 89 m

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF LOCAL LANDSCAPE

The selected local landscape of the Decew Escarpment is comprised of the main meadow area and the deciduous forest surrounding the meadow which can be observed in image 3. The area is wedged behind the Decew Falls Hydroelectric Plant and beside a section of the Lake Gibson reservoir system, Lake Moodie. While many components of these landscapes surrounding the escarpment are altered by anthropogenic influences, the Decew Escarpment continues to be a fought over natural landscape. The Escarpment is both a natural treasure within the Niagara region and one which continues to be threatened by human actions. Similar to all other ecosystems, the escarpment is and continues to be connected to its surrounding ecologies which include both natural and artificial landscapes. The boundaries can often be difficult to distinctively identify due to the Escarpments close range to Lake Moodie, the Decew Water Filtration Plant and the continuous urbanization of the surrounding area. However, for the purpose of this report, with mindfulness of clarity, the local landscape will specifically denote to the area of the meadow, and a surrounding buffer zone of 300 meters. This buffer zone is incorporated to account for the importance of the surrounding ecosystems, their components and how they all influence each other.

Map 1: Access Point to the Decew Escarpment off of Decew Road

Flora

Within the Decew Escarpment there is a wide range of plant species, assemblages, and communities. The meadow is home to and dominated mostly by long grasses and wildflowers but has many other non-woody plants as well. This meadow area has and continues to assist in forest regenerations both naturally and with assistance from the restoration project. Urban reforestation such as the one taking place in the Decew Escarpment often helps create a diverse ecosystem within the area where the plant associations join in harmony with the locations soils, geographical structure, weather and related environmental conditions (Hough, 2004). The Decew Escarpment Table lands restoration project assisted with the natural restoration of the forest by only adding local shrubs, grasses and other plants that are native to the area. This in turn, allows for local plants to thrive and keeps invasive plants which are alien to the area, out. Pods throughout the area were also planted to help with the location's natural reforestation. The natural progression of the area was sped up with this assisted management from the restoration project. The project followed the three general stages of woodland reestablishment with human assistance including, the preliminary planting of pioneer species which provided plant coverage, these plants were fast growing and needed high amounts of sun (Hough, 2004). Next transitional plants were incorporated in the area which replaced some of the previous plants and lastly long-living shade-tolerant species were planted (Hough, 2004). In the restoration project, this last step was in the form of Pods which consisted of woody-plants, in this case larger trees and shrubs also referred to as nucleated plantings. This restoration project within the Decew Escarpment is a pristine example of natural succession with assistance from human management.

The Decew Escarpment consists primarily of two main habitats, the central meadow area where the restoration project has taken place and the surrounding deciduous forest. There is a countless number of plant and animal species within both areas. The large meadow has a wide variety of wildflowers and flowering plants such as Sky-blue Aster (Figure 4), White and Calico Aster (Figure 5), Early and Stiff Goldenrod, Queen Anne's Lace, Big Bluestem, Canada Wildrye, Common Milkweed, and many others (Native Prairie and Meadow Gardens and Landscapes for homes, businesses, and institutions, 2015). While the meadow is covered mostly with long grasses, many of these native plants and shrubs pop up when conditions are right. The meadow is also home to a few very important larger shrubs and woody plants including, black walnut trees, eastern white pine, red pine, and cedar trees. These larger trees help speed up the natural reforestation of the meadow area. Along with these the Escarpments neighboring lake, Lake Moodie is home to many aquatic plants. These plants include mosses, reeds, water lilies, cattails, swamp rose mallow and more.

Fauna

Along with the various plant species, the Decew Escarpment also supports a range of different animals. The meadow along with its vegetation create a safe habitat which attracts local birds such as the Bobolink, American Goldfinch, and a variety of sparrow. Not only does this habitat act as a safe environment for native birds but also for many different pollinating insects such as bees, butterflies, beetles, grasshoppers, wasps and many more (Native Prairie and Meadow Gardens and Landscapes for homes, businesses, and institutions, 2015). Additionally, other larger animals including smaller rodents like mice, squirrels, racoons, and meadow voles. Larger animals within the area range from wild turkey and foxes to deer and coyotes. The surrounding forest is also home to many of these animals, such as deer, squirrels, and amphibians such as bullfrogs and salamanders.

While this area continues to be protected with the help from conservation programs, habitat loss throughout Ontario is still a very serious issue. With more human-impacted habitat loss these conservation programs are more important to animals such as the Bobolink than ever before. The Bobolink, one of the many grassland birds that populate meadows is undergoing severe population declines all throughout North America (The Bruce Trail Conservancy & Ontario Power Generation, 2010). Additionally, the blue spotted salamander is a rare amphibian that has been identified within and around the Decew Escarpment. Along with the already diverse list of species in the escarpment, Lake Moodie connected to the Twelve Mile Creek and apart of the Lake Gibson reservoir system is also home to many different aquatic creatures. Around 59 species of fish have been identified throughout these waterways. More common and popular species at the lake and stream include large and smallmouth bass, pike, spotted turtles, Brook Trout, Northern Pike, Perch (Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority, 2012). The Twelve Mile Creek is also the only cold-water stream within the Niagara Region and additionally has a self-sustaining population of Brook Trout (Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority, 2012). Overall, the deciduous forest, meadow, lake, and stream habitats within the Decew Escarpment are extremely important for ecosystems which allow flora and fauna alike to thrive and should continue to be protected.

Current Physical Features of Geomorphology

In the present day, the Decew Escarpment geology consists of dolostone rock evaporites, sandstone and shale (Liberty, Feenstra & Telford, 1976). Apart from these rock layers some of which may be exposed due to erosion, the areas soils consistent of Pleistocene sediment and this sediment today is a fairly productive soil type which is best for growing fruit, grain and oilseed (Liberty, Feenstra & Telford, 1976).The soils within this more central location in the Niagara Peninsula are predominantly clays, silty clays, and silty clay loams which can be observed in Figure 1. Many urban areas surrounding the Escarpment have experienced anthropogenic earth filling otherwise known as sealing, however, due to the protection efforts from conservationists the Escarpment itself has seen little to no sealing. Sealing is the action of paving or covering soil surfaces which causes loss of vegetation, habitat fragmentation, increased runoff, increased air temperature and pollution contaminants in soil levels (Marzluff, 2008). Other than a number of gravel trails, including the Bruce Trail, the Escarpment has seen no soil sealing. Within the buffer zone however, sealing has occurred at the Morningstar Mill, Decew Road, surrounding homes and the Decew Water Filtration Plant. The yellow line within Figure 2 , indicates areas of anthropogenic covering and filling around the Escarpment.

Natural Geomorphological Changes

This area is located on the Niagara Peninsula which is a portion of land in Southern Ontario which lies between the southwestern shore of Lake Ontario and the northeastern shore of Lake Erie. More specifically the location falls under the boundaries of the Niagara Escarpment formed on the bedrock (What is the Niagara Escarpment, 1996). The Niagara Escarpment was formed during the late Ordovician Period nearly 450 million years ago, by a shallow sea called the Michigan Basin, which covered an area that is now occupied by the Great Lakes (Gilhespy, 2015). Over time due to the creation of the now Appalachian Mountains, sediment including red, iron-rich sediment was deposited in the basin (Gilhespy, 2015). After the basin dried up, during the preceding 250 million years, the shale has continued to erode away, undercutting into the tougher dolostone and sandstone rock layers. Around 12,000 years ago as glaciers moved from the Canadian Shield through Southern Ontario scoring large valleys and creating moraines, drumlins, and eskers (Gilhespy, 2015). Through the additional erosion from frost wedging and water carving of shoreline caves and sea stacks the geology of the Escarpment was and is still being established (Gilhespy, 2015). Figure 3 shows the Surficial geology of the Decew Escarpment and its mappable landslide scar which is symbolized by the black lines. While the area has stayed fairly consistent the reservoir system beside the escarpment, Lake Moodie should be considered the largest human-induced geological change in the surrounding area. As of recently, the area has seen no human changes due to the continued fight over the site's protection.

Recent History to Present Day Hydrogeology and Human Induced Changes

The water cycle is an important and complex group of physical, biological, and chemical process that are essential for the functioning of ecosystems (Alberti, 2008). The water cycle around the Decew Escarpment has been heavily altered due to urbanization which consequently changes the microclimate and precipitation in and around the city of Thorold and St. Catharines. All of the features around the Decew Escarpment including the Twelve Mile Creek, Decew Falls and the Lake Gibson reservoir system has been altered or created by humans. Decew Falls and its runoff into Twelve Mile Creek is one of the most prominent hydrogeological features in the Decew Escarpment. Upper Decew Falls is a beautiful 22-meter-high and 5 to 6-meter-wide waterfall with runoff into the Twelve Mile Creek (Marsh, 2009). The Twelve Mile Creek has been heavily altered by humans through habitat improvement projects, and watershed quality improvement initiatives. The surface water quality of the Upper 12 Mile Creek was graded a C, meaning it regularly exceeded provincial guidelines for levels of phosphorus and E. coli (Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority, 2012). At the top of Decew Falls the gristmill, known was Morningstar Mill after its purchase in 1878 by the City of St. Catharine's, was built in 1872 (Williams, 2009).

Another prominent hydrogeological feature in the area is the Lake Gibson Moodie Welland Canal Reservoir Wetland Complex. This complex is a chain of man-made lake reservoirs created by flooding the shallow valley of Beaverdams Creek in order to supply water to the Decew hydroelectric power generation in 1898 (Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority, 2013). After the construction of a 7.6-kilometer canal called the Power Canal, water was diverted from Lake Erie to the Niagara Escarpment. The Power Canal is now used to supply water to the DeCew Falls Water Treatment Plant which has undergone two expansions one in 1904 and another in 1947. The first expansion of the Decew Power station led to the creation of Lake Moodie and Lake Gibson and the second expansion led to the enlargement of both lakes, including an outflow channel from Lake Moodie to the new penstocks, Image 6 (Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority, 2013). These penstocks are located just up a gravel incline across from the entrance to the Bruce Trail within the Decew Escarpment. Lake Moodie is the more prominent lake located just beside the Decew Escarpment.

Significant Natural Changes in Hydrogeology Over Time

The waterfalls including Upper and Lower Decew Falls were formed after the Niagara Escarpment was created around 450 million years ago (Marsh, 2009). The sediments left behind by a tropical seabed compressed into limestone and shale which can be witnessed throughout the escarpment today. Then around 12,000 years as the glaciers moved through what is now Southern Ontario, they scared the land and filled these crevasses and grooves with glacier meltwater creating the lakes and streams we see today. Through waterflow from glaciers and influence from the elements areas across the Escarpment began to erode and weather consequently creating dramatic land formation such as Decew falls and the gorge (Marsh, 2009). The Fonthill Kame Delta Complex was formed through these processes as well and one of its runoff rivers, the Upper 12 Mile Creek is located north of the meadow area on the Escarpment.

CLIMATE

The Niagara Region is just north of the 43^rd latitude, therefore signifying that its climate is continental and experiences warm summers and cold winters. This mild climate is moderated due to its positioning between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie and this specific location means that the area rarely experiences extreme or damaging temperatures (Shaw, 1994). The microclimate of specific regions within the Niagara Escarpment however are different throughout the area and effected by the different topographies within the peninsula.

MICROCLIMATE

The micro-climate of an area is contingent upon five elements of the climate including, solar radiation, wind, precipitation, temperature, and humidity. These five components are often affected by land features including topography, vegetation, and wildlife (Hough, 2004). Large bodies of water, such as the Lake Moodie Reservoir have tremendous effects on climate control due to their ability to slowly absorb, store and release a large percentage of solar energy. This ability allows these bodies of water to moderate temperatures by converting this solar energy into latent heat (Hough, 2004). This not only increases the areas temperature but additionally the locations evapotranspiration. Vegetation within and around the Escarpment also has a major impact on the microclimate due to its ability to control direct solar radiation and its reflection which assists with temperature regulation (Hough, 2004). The Decew Escarpment Table Lands Restoration Project increased the volume of vegetation in the area by planting approximately 20,000 trees, shrubs, and other plant life. This added vegetation assists with habitat restoration, temperature regulation, reduction of wind, deposition of humidity, rain and snow and controls precipitation amount and intensity. The presence of little anthropogenic material within the area of the Decew Escarpment allows for more natural process of climate and the microclimate to take place (Hough, 2004). The tree canopy along the outside of the of the escarpment retains most of the solar radiation while the lower levels of the escarpment can continue to remain cool meanwhile the impervious surfaces such as Decew Road and other man made landscapes around the outside of the escarpment absorbs a high concentrate of solar radiation. One of the greater influencers within a microclimate is the presence or lack of wind in an area which is affected by buildings, or the topography of the land (Hough, 2004). Within and around the Escarpment other than the Brock's Schmon Tower, there are no tall buildings to obstruct the air flow of the area, instead most building are fairly uniform in height. Topographically however, due to the drastically different elevation of the Escarpment and its surrounding elevations including the meadow area elevation of around 175 meters and the surrounding valley elevation of 139 to 88 meters the air flow is heavily influenced, as seen in Figure 4.

Archaeological Influences

The Niagara Region pre-European settlement was one which fostered many difference indigenous cultures and its people. The land was diverse and extremely healthy. No ossuaries have been found in the township of Thorold through excavations as of today but a number of stone and flint implements from around the Paleolithic and Neolithic age including items such as arrow tips, spear heads, knives, rough and unpolished stone hammers and axes have been found (Thompson, & Thorold, and Beaverdam's Historical Society, 2018). Prior to the first arrival of the "pale-faces", Jesuit missionary La Rouche Dallion in 1626, the first occupants of the Niagara district were the Attiwandarons or Attikidarons. The Attiwandarons were given the name "neutrals" by the French due to their lack of participation in the deadly struggle between the Iroquois and the Hurons. The Neutrals were known all over Canada to be the most ferocious peoples and a population of around 12,000 in 1640 as recorded (Thompson, & Thorold, and Beaverdam's Historical Society, 2018). Their flints were some of the best created by the indigenous population throughout Canada and in some cases could cut through glass. Throughout the Niagara region, the Neutrals had multiple small villages and would hunt, fish and used agricultural practices including growing maize, pumpkins, and beans to thrive. Within the area temporary villages were used during hunting seasons. After the large-scale attack on the Neutrals by the Iroquois, Mohawks, and Seneca's around 1645 to 1650, other than a few who could escape, almost all Neutrals were killed or taken as prisoners (Thompson, & Thorold, and Beaverdam's Historical Society, 2018). After the Neutrals were wiped out the land stayed empty due to superstitions until finally occupied by the Chippawas. A series of trans-continental trails during this period were established and later used considerably by the loyalist escaping persecution both during and after the War of Independence from 1775 to 1783 (Thompson, & Thorold, and Beaverdam's Historical Society, 2018). Two branches of this trail cross directly through the Thorold township. The branch of Chippawas who claimed the territory once occupied by the Neutrals were known as Mississaugas and they inhabited the land up until the British Government purchased it. Many reasons for the scenic landscapes of checkered meadows and forests in Thorold and St. Catharines are thanks to the Attiwandaron occupants and those who followed who continuously altered and changed the landscape of the area (Thompson, & Thorold, and Beaverdam's Historical Society, 2018).

Land use history

After the arrival of European settlers, the topography of St. Catharines and Thorold was altered drastically by humans. John DeCou was a united empire loyalist and was one of the first early settlers in the township of Thorold at Decew Falls. John Decou bought the property in the township of Thorold and Grantham, now the Beaverdam creek called DeCew Falls in 1788 (McBride, 1988). Decou purchased 200 acres for an axe, an Indian blanket, and a gold doubloon and proceeded to build an oil mill for processing flax seeds, a gristmill, and a sawmill. Decou additionally built his log house at the top of the waterfall and built the Decew house in 1808 overlooking the falls (McBride, 1988). The Decew house remains are situated between Lake Moodie and Lake Gibson where the First Nations Monument is located.

During the war of 1812 between 1812 and 1814, the DeCew House was used as a military storehouse and the headquarters during the war. The land around the house was used as a site for Mohawks and Caughnawaga to camp. The house and land is famously known for being the area where Laura Secord journey ended while informing the British Troops about the impending American attack (McBride, 1988). Later on, November 12, 1898 the Decew Falls hydroelectric power station which supplied power to Hamilton was opened (Gillard, 1975). The power station assisted at lowering Hamilton and other communities dependance on coal. However, it was made evident soon after the power stations opening that more power was needed which led to the flooding of the Beaverdams valley in 1904 and later the expansion of Lake Moodie (Head, 2017). Without the creation of the reservoir system, the Decew Escarpments natural meadow and forest area today would have been much more diverse and natural. This land has been heavily altered and effected by humans mostly following the time of European settlement within the area. The entirety of the ecosystem has been completely changed due to these human actions and it will never be how it was before settlement.

Education and Architectural Heritage:

Located along the lower path of the Bruce Trail in the meadow areas and at the entrance to the forested trail, there are two signs displaying information regarding the Decew Escarpment Table Lands Restoration Project. The information shown discusses the project implementation and the other educational information regarding the habitats assisted restoration. The signs allow visitors to search for and identify components of the restoration project and understand a bit more about the projects purpose and goals. Although there may not be any architectural heritage sites directly on the main portion of the Escarpment there are a number of spots surrounding the location. Morningstar Mill at Decew Falls is a great example of. The Mill is a historically important component of the location. The Morningstar Mill is one of the most preserved and historically important mills in all of Ontario. Within the mill, educational tools and exhibits are located thanks to the hard work of the volunteer group The Friends of Morningstar Mill, who are committed to preserving and sharing the Mills history (Friends of Morningstar Mill, 2020). Morningstar Mill is located at 2714 Decew Road, St. Catharine's and hours of visitation can be found online. The volunteer group has done an amazing job at supporting and promoting local heritage and attracting more tourists which helps the expanding knowledge economy within the city of St. Catharine's (Baeker & Hanna, 2009). Overall, the area may seem quaint, but it is indeed filled with educational important heritage.

Recreational Uses:

Regarding the recreational use of the escarpment, there are multiple trails and activities citizens of the public are able to use and do. Firstly, a relatively large section of the Bruce Trail is within and surrounding the area of the Escarpment which is open to all members of the public to respectfully use at any time. This trail is not only a great way to exercise and see the beauty of nature within the city but is also a great approach to learn more about the area's ecosystems. Additionally, there a number of trails separate and connected to the Bruce Trail which are also open to the public including the Laura Secord Trail and the lower trails along the bottom of the Decew Falls gorge. These trails are great for hiking, running, mountain biking (Image 7) , and in the winter, they are great for cross-country skiing or snowshoeing. The meadow area is an amazing spot for birdwatching, having a picnic, dog walking and observing nature. Along with a required fishing license, Lake Moodie is a great spot for fishing but it is recommended that due to pollutants, those with health conditions and pregnant women should not consume the fish from the reservoirs. Ice skating, swimming, and boating are all prohibited on Lake Moodie and the other lakes due to the hazardous currents and pollution levels throughout the reservoirs. Overall, there are a number of amazing recreational activities the public can participate in, in and around the Decew Escarpment.

Ownership, jurisdiction, access, and management

The area of the Decew Escarpment and its land ownership has been passed on and changed many times throughout history. Originally, the land was occupied by the Indigenous peoples including the Neutrals and later the Chippawas, but after settlement by the Europeans the land was bought by John DeCou (DeCew). Originally located in the township of Grantham, with its Lot numbers being 22 and 23 until the township change to the Regional Municipality of Niagara. DeCou owned the land prior to the creation and flooding of Lake Gibson and Lake Moodie reservoirs and was one of the founding members of the Hamilton Contract Power Company (McBride, 1988). The land then bought from the Contract Power Company by the Ontario Power Generation (OPG) in 1930. The Decew Falls Water Treatment Plant however is owned and operated by the Regional Municipality of Niagara but parts of the intake channels of the lake Gibson reservoir system are leased and maintained by the Ontario Power Generation (Regional Municipality of Niagara, 2013). The location of the Decew Escarpment therefore is owned by the OPG but maintained by both the Regional Municipality of Niagara and the OPG along with protection efforts from a number of conservation organizations including the Birdlife Canada, Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority, Niagara Restoration Council, City of St. Catharine's Green Committee and the Bruce Trail Association. Many of these organizations have taken interest in the area due to it being an Escarpment Natural Area and therefore had led to its protection as an Escarpment Protected Area.

Within the main area of the Decew Escarpment, including the meadow and the surrounding forest where the Bruce Train is located, boundaries and private property lines are often difficult to identify due to the number of various parties involved in the ownership and maintenance of the location. Overall, the main area of the Decew Escarpment is open for public use including the use of the Bruce Trail. Access to the Water Treatment Plant, front entrance point to the Decew Falls main trail and the Morningstar Mill however are managed by the owners. Due to the fluctuating levels of the water and the reservoir's changing, dangerous currents boating, swimming, and skating are not allowed. The change in land ownership overtime as said previously has had major influences on the way the landscape and its surrounding looks today.

The Decew Escarpment is a very important and complex location within the region of Niagara. This landscape has seen continuous anthropogenic activity and alteration. In general, this location is a very complex urban landscape because it hybrid interactions between human agents and ecological processes (Alberti, 2008). Due to the flooding and creation of Lake Moodie, alteration of Twelve Mile Creek, the Decew Escarpment Table Lands Restoration Project, and its efforts for natural reforestation the overall ecosystems has been almost completely changed over time. New species have been introduced to the area while some native species are driven out or into endangerment. The Restoration Project thankfully has assisted with the natural reforestation of the area creating a healthier safer ecosystem for a multitude of animals and plants and relieving some pressure on native plants and animals. Due the physical alterations of the locations and its surrounding areas, the climate and microclimate of the area have subsequently also been affected as discussed in the climate component of this report. The land has seen intensified land cover and decreased intensive human alteration. In general, the human and ecological agents have altered the land and influenced each other in unique and distinct ways over time and have ended up creating an amazing landscape.

The Bruce Trail Conservancy (BTC)

P.O. Box 857, Hamilton, ON L8N 3N9

Tel: 1-800-665-4453

Fax: 905-529-6823

Email: info@brucetrail.org

Ontario Power Generation (OPG) Biodiversity Program

Website: opgbiodiversity.ca and opg.com

Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority

250 Thorold Road West; 3rd Floor

Welland, ON L3C 3W2 October 13

Phone: 905-788-3135

Fax: 905-788-1121

info@npca.ca

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What is the Niagara Escarpment? (1996). Wat on Earth. University of Waterloo .Retrieved October 14, 2020 from, https://uwaterloo.ca/wat-on-earth/news/what-niagara-escarpment#:~:text=The%20escarpment%20formed%20over%20millions,more%20easily%20eroded%20shale%20rocks.&text=The%20Niagara%20Escarpment%20is%20not%20formed%20by%20faulting.

Williams, E. (2009). Morningstar Mill Records Collection. Brock University Archives. Retrieved October 14, 2020 from https://dr.library.brocku.ca/bitstream/handle/10464/9446/Morningstar%20Mills%20Records%20Collection%20RG%2078.pdf?sequence=1&sequence=1

Your Guide to Identifying Native Pollinator Plants. (n.d.). TRCA. 1-27. Retrieved October 18, 2020 from, http://www.trca.on.ca/dotAsset/174176.pdf

IMAGE SOURCES

Figures

Figure 1: Soil Survey Complex. (2003). Ontario ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Scholars GeoPortal. Retrieved from http://geo2.scholarsportal.info.proxy.library.brocku.ca/#r/details/_uri@=302324812

Figure 2: Areas of Anthropogenic alteration to the environment surrounding the Decew Escarpment. (2020). Google Earth. Retrieved October 7, 2020 from, https://earth.google.com/web/search/

Figure 3: Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario. (2010) Ontario Ministry of Northern Development, Mines and Forestry Sudbury Ontario, Canada. Scholars GeoPortal. Retrieved from http://geo2.scholarsportal.info.proxy.library.brocku.ca/#r/details/_uri@=1709810907$OGDE_SGU_2010_LINE

Figure 4: Thorold, Niagara Region, Ontario, Canada (n.d.). Topographic Maps. 43.11794 -79.20224. 300/1000. Retrieved from, https://en-ca.topographic-map.com/maps/062/Thorold/

Figure 5: 1934 Aerial image of the Decew Escarpment. (2020). Niagara Navigator. Niagara Region. 1:500 Retrieved October 7, 2020 from, https://maps.niagararegion.ca/Navigator/

Figure 6: 2000 Aerial image of the Decew Escarpment. (2020). Niagara Navigator. Niagara Region. 1:500 Retrieved October 7, 2020 from, https://maps.niagararegion.ca/Navigator/

Figure 7: 2010 Aerial image of the Decew Escarpment. (2020). Niagara Navigator. Niagara Region. 1:500 Retrieved October 7, 2020 from, https://maps.niagararegion.ca/Navigator/

Figure 8: 2018 Aerial image of the Decew Escarpment. (2020). Niagara Navigator. Niagara Region. 1:500 Retrieved October 7, 2020 from, https://maps.niagararegion.ca/Navigator/

Figure 9: Google Earth; St. Catharines. (2020). Aerial Image of Decew Escaprment 2020. Retrieved October 7, 2020 from, https://earth.google.com/web/search/Thorold

Images

Image 1: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 2: Google Maps (2020). General Boundaries discussed within the report; Decew Escarpment. Retrieved October 9, 2020.

Image 3: Kimber, M. (October 10, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 4: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 5: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 6: Kimber, M. (October 5, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 7: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 8: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 9: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 10: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 11: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 12: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 13: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 14: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 15: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

Image 16: Kimber, M. (October 9, 2020) Decew Escarpment (Authors own private collection).

This Local Landscape Report was prepared by Mckenzie Kimber for the Brock University course TOUR/GEOG 2P94: Human Dominated Ecosystems on October 31, 2020.

All copyrights for cited material rest with the original copyright owners.