The Spectacular Niagara Escarpment extends from southeastern Wisconsin to Manitoulin Island across the Bruce Peninsula and southwestern end of Lake Ontario (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013). The ridge crosses the Canadian and United States boundary at beautiful Niagara Falls and ends just east of Rochester, New York (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013). It is known to be one of the most diverse regions in the province of Ontario. The Niagara Escarpment is 725 kilometres long (Bruce Trail Conservancy). Many diverse ecosystems developed along the escarpment following the last ice age and when the Wisconsin Ice Sheet had retreated, and life returned to the escarpment (Giants Rib Escarpment Education Network). The ecosystems included wetlands, fens bogs, forests, meadows and alvars, etc. (Giants Rib Escarpment Education Network). Additionally, it consists of farms, streams, wetlands, beaches, hills, waterfalls, breathtaking scenic views, wildlife and habitats, historic towns, villages and cities. It is considered to be one of the natural wonders noting it has been known as a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve (Bruce Trail Conservancy). This is a result of the residents working to balance conservation and preservation with the surrounding development. There has been more change to the Niagara Escarpment in the past 100 years than in the prior 9000 years (Bruce Trail Conservancy). Individuals became motivated and came together and built the Bruce Trail. The magnificent urban and recreational growth of the natural lands provides people with the opportunity to explore and enjoy the beautiful surroundings (Bruce Trail Conservancy). From the years 1963-1967, the Bruce Trail was created along the escarpment which resulted in public recognition. The Bruce Trail association believed that the extended use of the Niagara Escarpment would form landscape value and lead to its security (Forester, P. 2017). In 1973, the Niagara Escarpment Planning and Developing Act was approved by the government of Ontario. They were then ready to publish a proposed plan in 1979 (Forester, P. 2017). In 1985, this plan was approved. From there and on, the Niagara Escarpment started building on and on.

Municipality: Hamilton

Local area name: City of Hamilton

Other identifying names or descriptions Mountain Brow, Escarpment

Latitude and longitude: 43.833, -80.000

Physical Dimensions

Length: 11km

Width: 90m

Surface Area: Unknown

Elevation:

153m above sea level

An escarpment is a sheer vertical cliff face that separates two horizontal surfaces at different heights. The Niagara Escarpment runs along the Northern side of the Niagara Peninsula, eventually terminating as cliff over which the Niagara river becomes the scenic Niagara Falls. The Escarpment starts at Queenston Heights on the Niagara Peninsula, running north through Hamilton to Tobermory at the tip of the Bruce Peninsula in Northern Ontario (Gillard and Tooke, 1975). It then traces the North-Eastern rim of Lake Huron into Michigan, then follows the North-Western rim of Lake Michigan, running into Wisconsin and eventually terminating in Illinois. The fact that the escarpement traces the rim of these lakes is no coincidence: the escarpment forms part of the bedrock that shapes the basins of Lake Ontario, Huron and Michigan (Fremlin, 1958).

The Escarpment separates the Niagara Peninsula into two sections: A thin strip of land north of the Escarpment approximating the towns of Grimsby, Lincoln, St Catherines and Niagara-on-the-Lake and a larger southern section comprising the towns of West Lincoln and Pelham as well as the cities of Welland, Thorold and Niagara Falls. The plain north of the escarpment is known as the Iroquois Plain. The larger plain to the south of the escarpment is known as the Haldimand Clay Plain (Brown et al., 2011).

The Escarpment is also a prominent landscape in the city of Hamilton, Ontario. The city of Hamilton is laid out in such a fashion that "Hamilton Proper" (consisting of the downtown core) is below the Escarpment on the north side, while the other half of Hamilton lives above the escarpment in the area called the "Mountain" (Osbaldeston, 2016). Getting to mountain involves driving along roads that are elevated. Formerly, a railway, the Hamilton Incline Railway, transported people up and down the "Mountain". This CN rail line starts at Albany Falls and terminates in the lower city. It is now abandoned and has been converted in a touristy attraction called the Escarpment Rail Trail (https://www.ontariotrails.on.ca/index.php?url=trai.../view/escarpment-rail-trail/)

Map of the Niagara Escarpment in Ontario, Canada

Many of these species are unique to this part of Canada. Clearly, just enumerating even all of these species will exceed the word limit of this report so only a few of the "greatest hits" will be mentioned. For a more complete list, please refer to the Bruce Trail Field Guides at: https://brucetrail.org/pages/family-fun#fieldguides. Most of the species mentioned in this report are obtained from the field guides.

The Bruce Trail features many different habitat types such as wetlands, forests, meadows, alvars, cliffs and streams (Bruce Trail Conservancy and Ontario Power Generation, 2010). The flora and fauna between each habitat type are generally different. However, the flora and fauna are similar within each habitat type all along the trail with some specific and unique differences. Wetlands, as the name suggests, are areas with stagnant bodies of water. These include marshes, swamps (which are wetlands in a forest), bogs (acidic wetlands that accumulate peat, a type of organic fuel formed from the decomposition of moss and ferns) and fens, which are peat-accumulating wetlands that are non-acidic and can thus accommodate a more diverse selection of organisms. Wetlands are rich in dragonflies, frogs (such as the spotted Leopard frog), ducks (wood ducks) and birds (Black tern). With regards to the flora, wetlands are rich in cattails (rushes that look like a hotdog-on-a-stick), sedges, sphagnum moss (which forms peat) and flowers such as Marsh Marigold.

Forests are green spaces where the main ecological feature are trees (Bruce Trail Conservancy and Ontario Power Generation, 2011). Bruce Trail forests are primarily deciduous forests with some small sections of coniferous forests. In addition to the usual maples, the Bruce Trail features a walnut tree called the butternut tree. Forests consist of a canopy (which form the upper elevated layer consisting of tree branches), the understory (which are all plants and animals at the ground level) and the ground layer, which consists of the soil and all life underneath it. The canopy of Bruce Trail forests by birds such as the red-headed woodpecker and the red-shouldered hawk. The understory features mammals such as porcupines. The flora in the understory consist of ferns (Hart's Tongue Fern), shrubs/herbs (Sassafras or Mitten Tree) and flowers such as the Wood Lily.

Meadows are well-drained, low-lying open areas dominated primarily by non-woody plants such as grasses and sedges. Meadows are abuzz with pollinating insects such as bees, birds that forage on the grasses and rodents that live within the tall grasses. Prominent plants of Bruce Trail meadows include Kentucky grass, Goldenrods and flowery Dense Blazing Stars. The animals in meadows include birds such as the endangered bobolink. Rodents in meadows include voles such as the Meadow Vole.

Alvars are a rare type of habitat only frequently found in Scandinavia and Baltics. Alvars are flat, open areas where the ground consists primarily of dolomitic limestone (Bruce Trail Conservancy and Ontario Power Generation, 2010). A soil as we commonly know it, is completely non-existent. Alvars can be thought of as "naturally-paved" areas. The primary plant life are epiphytic (surface-dwelling) plants such as lichens, moss, orchids and ferns. Because of the uniqueness of alvars, they contain rare plants and animals that are not found outside alvars. These plants and animals are adapted specifically for the generally harsh (lack of tree cover so plants and animals are exposed to the elements) and nutrient-deficient (because of a lack of soil) environment. These plants include the rare Lakeside Daisy and the Dwarf Lake Iris, which play host to equally rare butterflies. Because of a lack of plant food, ground animals are rare in alvars. Instead, bottom feeders such as rare snails can be found. The fauna in alvars are primarily endangered birds such as Loggerhead Shrikes, Eastern Meadowlarks and Upland Sandpipers.

Cliffs, like alvars, are vertical, nutrient-deficient habitats that are exposed to the elements. As such, cliffs are host to rare plants and animals that are adapted specifically for such a harsh habitat (Bruce Trail Conservancy and Ontario Power Generation, 2010). Plants on cliff faces include epiphytes such as the Purple-stemmed Cliffbrake and the Wall Rue. Cliffs along the Bruce Trail also feature some cliff-dwelling Eastern White Cedars that have somehow found purchase via shallow roots on the dolomitic limestone. Like alvars, the fauna in cliffs are mostly birds such as the Cliff Swallow, Peregrine Falcons and the Turkey Vulture. The crevices within the cliffs also host at least four species of bats.

Streams are small and shallow bodies of running water. Streams and small falls can be found throughout the Bruce Trail. Streams feature both terrestrial and aquatic life (Bruce Trail Conservancy and Ontario Power Generation, 2010). Streams along the Bruce Trail can be found to contain animal life such as freshwater shrimp, crayfish, snapping and spotted turtles, smallmouth bass fish and water-dwelling muskrat rodents. Birds that feed on this plethora of life include such aquatic birds as the Belted Kingfisher. Plant life include Cardinal flowers and Water lilies.

Conservation

Human activities have the capacity to impact the plant and animal life of the Bruce Trail/Niagara Escarpment. Human settlement, forestry and land clearing for agriculture have destroyed many habitats as well as polluting the remaining habitats. The Niagara Escarpment Commission and Bruce Trail Conservancy work together to conserve about 7000+ acres of land. These efforts are mostly the work of Bruce Trail volunteers. Efforts to conserve these include building birdboxes for wood ducks as well as reforestation efforts. Conservation efforts are centered around the HIPPO(C) concept, which standards for Habitat loss, Invasive Species, Pollution, (Human) Population Growth, Overconsumption and (C)limate Change (Bruce Trail Conservancy and Ontario Power Generation, 2010).

Modern conservation of the Bruce Trail also involves building conservation corridors or wildlife corridors. One of the most deleterious effects of human settlement is the erection of structures that impede the movement of animals within a habitat. This lack of mobility endangers animals' survival. A conservation corridor is a strip of land that is verboten to human activity that is designed to facilitate movement of animals around the habitat so as not to endanger their survival. The Bruce Trail features many such conservation corridors.

Human activity has also introduced invasive plant species such as purple loosestrife, dog strangling vine and garlic mustard. These plant species are highly competitive and can dominate native species and eradicate them. Conservation efforts usually involve keeping the population and growth of such invasive species to a manageable level.

b) Geomorphology:

The Escarpment, like the Grand Canyon, exposes many rock layers that developed over millions of years. Unlike the Grand Canyon, the Escarpment was not formed by a tectonic event but rather by an erosion event (described below). And just as well since we in Ontario would not want to be living near a tectonic fault line! The Escarpment began developing some 450 million years ago when the area was immersed under a shallow sea (Tovell, 1992). Layers of sedimentary rocks (shale and sandstone) consisting of deposited sand, silt and clay were formed from sediment carried into this sea by rivers. Dead crustacean shellfish rich in lime such as shells and clams were also deposited as layers (dolomitic limestone) on top of this budding rock formation (Bolton, 1957). The rocks formed under the immense pressure. After the sea withdrew some 300 million years ago, the soft underlying shale layer was eroded while the harder "dolostone" caprock was not eroded. Over time, the dolomitic limestone caprock broke away to form the sheer cliff face of the escarpment in a sapping process (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The Sapping Process that Formed the Niagara Escarpment.

The features of the escarpment were also greatly influenced by glaciers in the last 2 million years (Storck, 2011). As ice forms, it displaces rocks and ice. The formation of ice (called glaciations), carves ruts and hollows that form the basin of lakes as well as valleys. The Great Lakes are filled with water from melted glaciers of the last ice age 23,000 years ago (Wisconsin Ice Age). The hollows and ruts that comprise the lake basins were formed by this and earlier glaciation events.

Soils

The soil of the Peninsula north of the escarpment (Iroquois Plain) is practically an above-surface lakebed. The soil in the Iroquois plain consists of a deep, moderately well-drained, sandy loam that overlies a bedrock consisting of Queenston shale (the same soft shale at the bottom layer of the escarpment). Parts of the Iroquois Plain also contain imperfectly-drained, silty Halton clay over the bedrock (Ontario Ministry of the Environment, 1972). Loams are the most ideal soils for agriculture and Grimsby's northern section in particular is home to some wineries (Wessolek, 2008).

To the south of the Escarpment, the soil consists of well-drained, lightly-textured soils that are well-suited for peaches, apples, cherries and cold-resistant grapes. These fruits are the source material for gins and other spirits at the Dillon's distillery at Beamsville. Other distilleries in the Niagara region produce fruit spirits from the local produce. To the very south of the Haldimand Clay plain, the soil consists of heavy, fine-textured and poorly-drained soils ideal for crops such as corn and soybeans.

c) Hydrology

Hydrogeological changes are what gave birth to the escarpment. As already mentioned in the geomorphology section, the escparment used to be under a shallow, inland sea fed by rivers and streams. The rivers and streams brought sediment that later formed the soft bedrock Queenston shale layer. The sea featured marine life that became limestone after they died. This formed the dolomitic upper layer of the escarpment. The recession of the sea and subsequent glaciation events cut the basins that now form the Great Lakes. Melting of these glaciers filled the Great Lakes. Erosion of the lower shale layer led to the breaking of the dolomitic caprock that forms the sheer cliff face of the escarpment.

The most prominent hydrogeological change brought about by humans is the construction of the Welland canal as well as the hydroelectric generating stations all along the Niagara river. Hydroelectric generating station necessitate the control of the flow of water by damming as well as creating artificial reservoirs of water that can be released at-will to generate electricity (Ball, 2005). The construction of the Welland canal involved digging recesses all across a section of the escarpment that can be filled with water and installed with locks (Coombs, 1930). The filling/draining of these locks with water allow ships to rise and descend along the length of the canal, surmounting the vertical obstacle posed by the escarpment.

d) Climate/ Microclimate

The most prominent hydrogeological feature of the Niagara escarpment are the Great Lakes of Huron, Erie, Ontario and Michigan. As already mentioned in the geomorphology section, the Niagara escarpment forms the basin of some of these lakes (Born et al., 1974). The next most salient hydrogeological feature is the Niagara river, which falls off the escarpment as Niagara Falls. All along the escarpment, small streams and falls are also a prominent feature.

Hydrogeological changes are what gave birth to the escarpment. As already mentioned in the geomorphology section, the escparment used to be under a shallow, inland sea fed by rivers and streams. The rivers and streams brought sediment that later formed the soft bedrock Queenston shale layer. The sea featured marine life that became limestone after they died. This formed the dolomitic upper layer of the escarpment. The recession of the sea and subsequent glaciation events cut the basins that now form the Great Lakes. Melting of these glaciers filled the Great Lakes. Erosion of the lower shale layer led to the breaking of the dolomitic caprock that forms the sheer cliff face of the escarpment.

The most prominent hydrogeological change brought about by humans is the construction of the Welland canal as well as the hydroelectric generating stations all along the Niagara river. Hydroelectric generating station necessitate the control of the flow of water by damming as well as creating artificial reservoirs of water that can be released at-will to generate electricity (Ball, 2005). The construction of the Welland canal involved digging recesses all across a section of the escarpment that can be filled with water and installed with locks (Coombs, 1930). The filling/draining of these locks with water allow ships to rise and descend along the length of the canal, surmounting the vertical obstacle posed by the escarpment.

Human Induced Changes

The biggest human-induced alteration to the climate of the Niagara Peninsula is climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions. This has the effect of hotter summers, decrease rainfall and extreme climate events such as storms (Brown et al., 2011).

Figure 2. Wind Machines Near Vineyards.

An example of a human-induced alteration to the microclimate of the Niagara Peninsula is the use of wine machines in vineyards (Figure 2). These wine machines are large fans that pull down hot air from an elevation of about 15 m and force them down onto the vineyard plantings (Fraser, 2010). This is necessary during a temperature inversion as a temperature inversion will result in extreme cold (frost) that may damage the vines. Other innovations to keep vineyards warm are the large vineyard "space heaters" that generate hot air and blow them onto the vines (Figure 3) (Bootsma and Brown, 1985).

Figure 3. Vineyard Bougies.

VI.HISTORICAL FEATURES

The first record of human settlement of the Niagara Peninsula dates back to approximately 1300 to 1400 AD by a tribe of Native Americans called the Onguiaahra, the last syllable of which forms the –ra in Niagara. The peninsula was latter settled by a group of Atiquandaronk, also called the Neutrals (Dale, 1999). The pre-Columbian geopolitics of the region is mainly about the rivalry between the Hurons (west of the Niagara Peninsula) and the Iroquois (East of the Niagara Peninsula). When French settlers first encountered the Atiquandaronk, they gave this group the name "Neutrals" due to their status as mediators and peacekeepers between the Huron and Iroquois. Their physical location between the Hurons and Iroquois is also symbolic of their neutral status. The Neutrals were led by a Queen named Jikonsaseh, who lived in a village near the Niagara River. The Neutrals were a non-nomadic tribe, having settled and developed permanent settlements. The Neutrals were craftspeople as well as farmers and traders.

The Neutral nation ceased to exist in the aftermath of the Native American Wars, a 6-year conflict between the Seneca (plus the Iroquois Nation) and the Wenroe and Huron nation. The victorious Iroquois either drove the Neutrals away to the East (to Albany, NY) or incorporated them (Revie, 2006). A subsequent war between the Seneca and the Erie nations led to the weakening of both nations, so much so that the Mississauga nation moved into territory left barren by both tribes. The Seneca were later victorious, marking the extinction of the Erie tribe.

The first European explorer to come to the Niagara Peninsula was the French explorer Etienne Brule. The arrival of Europeans heralded a new era (Berton, 2011). The Native American tribes would become involved in conflicts between Europeans (such as the Seven Year's War and the American Revolution) with their fortunes tied to the side they backed. During the Seven Year's War, the Mississaugas supported the French while the Iroquois League (which included the Seneca) supported the British. During the later American Revolution, the Mississaugas supported the British.

Things took a turn vis-à-vis European settlement of the Niagara Peninsula with the conclusion of the American Revolution in the late 1700s (Berton, 2011). Upper Canada (corresponding to present-day Ontario) became a haven for American Loyalists (United Empire Loyalists) who supported the Crown. The new colony's capital was at Niagara-on-the-Lake. In the 1800s, waves of German, Italian, French and Eastern European immigrants settled the Peninsula in the agricultural phase of immigration. As such, most of these immigrants were farmers and tradespeople.

Industrialization and the advent of electricity gave the Niagara Peninsula a new industrial importance. The ready availability of electricity as a result of the hydroelectric power stations along the Niagara River brought industry to the area (Berton, 2011). These electricity-heavy industries were located primarily in St. Catherines and Niagara Falls. In particular, General Motors built manufactories in St. Catherines. Indeed, the Welland canal was built to facilitate this industrial activity. The Welland Canal traverses the length of the Niagara Peninsula, starting at Port Colborne on the shores of Lake Erie and going up to St. Catherines and into Lake Ontario. At the North-Eastern section of Lake Ontario is the beginning of the St. Lawrence seaway, which connects Lake Ontario to the Atlantic Ocean. The Welland canal was designed specifically to allow ships to surmount the Niagara Escarpment. The canal features a series of locks that allow ships to ascend and descend the escarpment. Trade usually consisted of manufactured goods from the U.S. making its way to Atlantic ports, where they were then shipped to Europe. As well, raw materials from the U.S. would make its way to St. Catherines and Hamilton (as a steel town) where they would be turned into finished goods that could then make its way into the Atlantic via the St. Lawrence seaway.

Heavy industrial activity has led to the pollution of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie (Berton, 2011). Industrial effluents from the heavy industries in Hamilton and St. Catherines are often discharged straight into the nearest body of water, this being Lake Ontario. As well, agricultural run-off from all the agricultural activity in the peninsula is a considerable problem. The run-off typically consists of fertilizers such as phosphates. Phosphates are also prime ingredients in cleaning products such as detergents, which are prominent in both human and industrial activity. In addition, the human tendency to settle along bodies of water has also led to the discharge of human waste products into the lakes.

These fertilizers (both of the agricultural and human variety) can promote the growth of algae on the surface of a lake in a phenomenon called eutrophication (U.S. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Great Lakes Region & N.Y. State Division of Pure Waters, 1968). There was concern in the 1960s that Lake Ontario would be eutrophicated. Eutrophication is the blanketing of the lake surface with a film of algae that blocks sunlight from reaching the lakebed. This starves plants on the lakebed of light needed for photosynthesis, reducing the oxygen supply (plants make oxygen from carbon dioxide). When these plants die, their decomposition further reduces the oxygen supply. Eventually, the oxygen concentration of the water reduces so much that fish start to die. When these fish die, they float to the surface and cause a massive stink. In addition, their decomposition continues to deplete the oxygen concentration. Eventually, the lake becomes "dead" and consists of dead fish, dead plants and dead algae. Legislative initiatives have improved the water quality since the 1960s but continued agricultural, industrial and human settlement activity will ensure that pollution of the lake remains a problem.

VI. Cultural Features

Recreational Uses:

The Niagara Peninsula is a central feature of the Bruce Trail, named after James Bruce, Governor-General of Canada from 1847 to 1854 (Freeman and Freeman, 1998). The Bruce Trail is a formal (i.e. controlled by a jurisdictional authority) public hiking trail consisting of a series of parks and other lands that follows the Niagara Escarpment very closely, starting at Queenston Heights close to the U.S. border all the way to the northernmost point at Tobermory on Georgian Bay. The Bruce Trail is the brainchild of Ray Lowes and Robert Bateman, both members of the Federation of Ontario Naturalists (Tyson, 2017). Initial work to produce the trail began in 1959 with most of the groundwork for today's trail being laid in the 1960s. More about the Bruce Trail can be found at: https://brucetrail.org/.

Education and Interpretation:

The Indigenous history of the Niagara Peninsula and escarpment are showcased in the online tour "The Great Niagara Escarpment: Indigenous Cultural Map", which can be found at: http://thegreatniagaraescarpment.ca/. A good historical background of the Niagara Peninsula can be found at: https://www.niagarafallsinfo.com/, which chronicles the human activity in the Peninsula. The Greenbelt's site also contains a good summary of the escarpment's history: https://www.greenbelt.ca/niagara_escarpment_blog.

Architectural Heritage

The escarpment, as a conserved site, is maintain in as natural a state as possible. However, prior to conservation efforts, early settlement along the escarpment has resulted in towns and cities along the escarpment. These towns and cities are mostly modern although the town of Niagara-on-the-Lake features colonial-era architecture that is maintained as close to the originals as possible. If one fancies industrial architecture, there are tours in Niagara Falls on defunct power stations along the hydroelectric power plants of the Niagara River.

I.LAND TENURE

Ownership, jurisdiction, access, and management

The escarpment is not owned by any one individual or group. Since the escarpment is almost 900 km long (at least the Canadian section of it is), the escarpment traverses multiple municipal boundaries and cuts into private land, public land as well as federal land. Indeed, if one considers the U.S. section of the escarpment, the escarpment is a multinational entity. In particular, the Bruce Trail, which follows the escarpment closely, is owned in part by a motley assortment that includes the Government of Ontario, private landowners, the Bruce Trail Conservancy, local municipalities and local conservation authorities. The escarpment, however, is open to the public, primarily thanks to the efforts of the Bruce Trail Conservancy, formerly the Bruce Trail Association.

Land ownership of escarpment seeks largely to conserve the escarpment. As such, human activity outside of hiking and use as an open space is not only discourage but actively prohibited. The coordinating influence of the Bruce Trail Conservancy ensures that anthropogenic impact on the escarpment remains as minimal as possible. Ontario Power Generation is presumably involved somewhere along the way as OPG has, in cooperation with the Bruce Trail Conservancy, produced a series of guides about the Bruce Trail.

Map 2: Municipalities along the Bruce Trail/Niagara Escarpment

The Niagara Escarpment is covered by the Greenbelt Act 2005. The Greenbelt is a permanently-protected natural space in Southern Ontario, encompassing forests, wetlands, farmlands and watersheds (Mausberg, 2017). In addition to this, the Niagara Escarpment falls under the provincial authority of the Niagara Escarpment Commission, which was established in 1973, shortly after the Niagara Escarpment was declared by UNESCO as a Biosphere Reserve. Naturally, the goal of the Commission is to "conserve the UNESCO-designated Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve as a continuous natural environment and scenic, working countryside". The strong push to conserve the escarpment has ensured that human impact on the landform since the mid-1900s has been minimal. The Niagara Escarpment Commission's latest plan was published in 2017 (Niagara Escarpment Commission, 2017). This document outlines the maintenance and development activities permitted under the plan. As with all conservation efforts, the goal of the plan is to minimize human impact on the escarpment as much as possible.

I.CONNECTIVITY AND CONTEXT

This topic has been covered in detail in other areas of this report and so only a brief summary will be provided here. The landscape is located in the Northern edge of the Niagara Peninsula (as well as throughout the rest of Ontario). The land has seen much agricultural activity (primarily fruit tree orchards and vineyards). The land has also seen much industrial activity as evidenced by the activity in Hamilton and St. Catherines. The escarpment has also been bisected by the Welland canal, which surmounts the elevated escarpment. The QEW highway, on the north side of the escarpment, runs roughly parallel to the escarpement. The Bruce trail closely follows the escarpment all along its length. Rail lines traverse the escarpment as well as running along side it.

I.CONTACT INFORMATION

Bruce Trail Conservancy

Mailing Address:

PO Box 857

Hamilton, ON L8N 3N9

Head Office & General Store:

55 Head St., Unit 101

Dundas, ON L9H 3H8

Direction Notes:

We are at 55 Head St in Dundas NOT 55 Head St. in Hamilton

Located at the corner of Head Street and Mill Street.

Entrance is on Mill Street.

Hours for curbside pick-up: Monday - Friday, 9 am - 4 pm

Phone: 905-529-6821 or 1-800-665-4453

Fax: 905-628-8081

Email: info@brucetrail.org

Niagara Escarpment Commission

Literature Cited

Ball, N. R. (2005). The Canadian Niagara Power Company Story: Boston Mills Press.

Berton, P. (2011). Niagara: A History of the Falls: Doubleday Canada.

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Bootsma, A., & Brown, M. (1985). Freeze Protection Methods For Crops: Queen's Priner for Ontario.

Born, S. M., Smith, S. A., Stephenson, D. A., Commission, U. G. L. R., & Project, I. L. D. (1974). The Hydrogeologic Regime of Glacial-terrain Lakes, with Management and Planning Applications: Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission.

Brown, D.T., Middleton, J., & Vaughan, K.S. (2010). The Land Between the Lakes – An Overview of the Niagara Region. In Black, J.E. & Roy, K.E (Eds.), Niagara Birds (pp. 41-55). Brock University Printing and Digital Services.

Bruce Trail Conservancy & Ontario Power Generation. (2010). Biodiversity & Me: Your guide to the biodiversity of the Bruce Trail and Niagara Escarpment: Queen's Printer for Ontario.

Bruce Trail Conservancy & Ontario Power Generation. (2011). Exploring the Forests of the Niagara Escarpment: Queen's Printer for Ontario.

Cash, C. (2016). Good governance and strong political will: Are they enough for transformation? (vol 50, pg 301, 2016). Land Use Policy, 58, 557-557. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.08.011

Coombs, A. E. (1930). History of the Niagara Peninsula and the New Welland Canal: Historical Publishers Association.

Dale, R. J., Coon, D., & Newton, C. (1999). Niagara-on-the-Lake: Its Heritage and Its Festival: James Lorimer Limited, Publishers.

Fraser, H. (2010). Wind Machines for Minimizing Cold Injury to Horticultural Crops: Queen's Priner for Ontario.

Freeman, R., & Freeman, S. (1998). Bruce Trail: An Adventure Along the Niagara Escarpment: Footprint Press.

Fremlin, G. (1958). Geomorphology of the Niagara Escarpment, Niagara River--Georgian Bay: Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Western Ontario.

Gillard, W. H., & Tooke, T. R. (1975). The Niagara Escarpment: From Tobermory to Niagara Falls: University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division.

Hough, M. (2004). Cities and Natural Process: Routledge.

Mausberg, B., & Foundation, F. o. t. G. (2017). The Greenbelt: Protecting and Cultivating a Great Ontario Treasure: Barlow Book Publishing.

Niagara Escarpment Commission. (2017). Niagara Escarpment Plan (2017): Queen's Printer for Ontario.

Ontario Ministry of the Environment (1972). Niagara Peninsula Conservation Report, 1972: Ontario Department of the Environment.

Osbaldeston, M. (2016). Unbuilt Hamilton: Dundurn Press, Toronto.

Revie, L. L. (2003). The Niagara Companion: Explorers, Artists, and Writers at the Falls, from Discovery Through the Twentieth Century: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.

Storck, P. L. (2011). Journey to the Ice Age: Discovering an Ancient World: UBC Press.

Tovell, W. M., Brown, L., Commission, N. E., & Foundation, O. H. (1992). Guide to the Geology of the Niagara Escarpment: With Field Trips: Niagara Escarpment Commission with the assistance of the Ontario Heritage Foundation.

Tyson, D. (2017). Trail to the Bruce: The Story of the Building of the Bruce Trail: David Tyson.

United States. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Great Lakes Region & New York (State). Division of Pure Waters (1968). Water Pollution Problems and Improvement Needs: Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence River Basins: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.

Wake, W. C., & Naturalists, F. O. (1997). A Nature Guide to Ontario: University of Toronto Press.

Wessolek, G. (2008). Sealing of Soils. In J. M. Marzluff, E. Shulenberger, W. Endlicher, M. Alberti, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, U. Simon, & C. ZumBrunnen (Eds.), Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature (pp. 161-179). Boston, MA: Springer US.

Image Sources

Map 1: Wikimedia Commons. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Niagara_Escarpment_map.png

Map 2: Cash, 2016. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311646453_Good_governance_and_strong_political_will_Are_they_enough_for_transformation_vol_50_pg_301_2016/

Figure 1: Canadian Geoscience Education Network. https://www.cgenarchive.org/toronto-niagara-escarpment.html

Figure 2: Fraser, 2010. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/10-045.htm

Figure 3: Decanter.com. https://www.decanter.com/learn/winemakers-prevent-frost-ask-decanter-367606/

This Local Landscape Report was prepared by Melina Muia for the Brock University course TMGT 2P94: Human Dominated Ecosystems on November 07, 2020.

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