Located on Portage Road approximately halfway between Niagara Falls and Chippawa sits the Oak Hall Estate and Golf Course. Once a high bank known as Clark Hill, was purchased by Sir Harry Oakes on July 15, 1924 (Niagara Falls Museums, 2020). Oakes, a mining made millionaire (LeGrand, 2010) built a 37-room Tudor style mansion that took four years to see complete. Named the Oak Hall Estate, the Oakes family lived in the estate for 6 years beginning in 1928. The building was handed over to the Government of Canada via Sir Harry's wife in 1943 and was used as a hospital for the Royal Canadian Air Force (Niagara Falls Museums, 2020). In 1952, the Niagara Parks Commission (NPC) purchased the estate which led to its purpose switching to tourism and office space (Ahmadi, 2016). On June 17, 1966 a 9-hole golf course was built on the land that surrounds Oak Hall Estate. Looking over Dufferin Islands, the course is close enough to The Falls that they can be heard while on the golf course (Niagara Parks, 2020). Due to the emergence of the golf industry, the course was added to the Niagara Golf Trail (Brooker, Burgess, & Jayawardena (2008)). Administrative offices were put in and used starting in 1983. The 23 offices are used for administrative, meeting and storage space. Alongside these purposes, art from the Niagara Falls area resides in the estate that is open to the public for visiting purposes. A 1050 yard, 9-hole, Par-3 golf course known as the Oak Hall Golf Course, as well as the Oak Hall Estate take up the land that was once known as Clark Hill. Marineland, a popular tourist attraction in the Niagara region, is located on the opposite side of Portage Road from the golf course and estate.

Municipality: Niagara

Local area name: Niagara Falls

Other identifying names or descriptions Southwest of Horseshoe Falls

Latitude and longitude: 43°04'10.9"N 79°04'30.0"W

Physical Dimensions

Length: 1600m

Width: 2600m

Surface Area: 6 hectares

Elevation:

Highest / lowest point - 205m / 183m

Both owned by the Niagara Parks Commission, the Oak Hall Golf Course and Oak Hall Estate are situated in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Located on the outskirts of the city of Niagara Falls towards the Chippawa area. Approximately one quarter of a mile southwest from the famous Horseshoe Falls, the Oak Hall Golf Course and Oak Hall Estate lay on the same piece of property. Wedged between MarineLand and Dufferin Island, the land consists of grass with nearly 50 trees, plus a small urban forest. The boundary of the golf course and estate is filled with a tree line about 80 meters in the width. Wrapping the property to the north all the way around the east side, the trees range in height from 32 ft all the way to 78 ft. With a surface area of 60,516.83 m², the boundary is made up of Portage Road, driveway of Oak Hall Estate, and tree line the wraps around the north side of the golf course. Between the road, driveway and tree line, the boundary is clearly defined.

Map 1: Map view of Oak Hall Estate and Oak Hall Golf Course (Source Google Maps)

Map 2: Satellite view of Oak Hall Estate and Oak Hall Golf Course (Source Google Maps)

In between Dufferin Island and Horseshoe Falls lays a property that was once known as Clark Hill. This property has seen changes since the building erected in the 1920's. Now known as the Oak Hall Estate property owned by the Niagara Parks Commission, a golf course along with an historic estate take up the real estate. When looking at the changes that have taken place from the time this destination was called Clark Hill to now being a multi-use site, it is important to examine what humans have done. Not only is it important to examine the new purposes of the land, but to look at what effect these changes have had on plants and animals. Studies of urbanization look very closely at the relationship between animals, plants and humans as they have come into contact with the expansion of European settlement.

Although not listed as an environmentally sensitive area, the land has seen many human purposes from housing a family to now a recreational golf course and office space, changes are evident. Both plant species as well as animals have seen their habitats change. From deciduous trees being cut down to enhance the layout of the golf course to blue jays having fewer places to nest, the natural essence of this destination has seen the use of unfriendly practices in the past century. As the land is now owned and taken care of by the Niagara Parks Commission, it is safe to say it is in better hands as opposed to a wealthy mining owner. The site may now be used for educational purposes, such as to help visitors learn more about the species that call this area of Niagara Falls, Ontario home.

Plant Species

Most of the land is covered by grass, with an urban forest that wraps around the property. Within the urban forest, different kinds of deciduous trees can be found, along with several different plant species as the underlay. American beech and Sugar maple appear to be the most dominant of tree species in the urban forest (Russell & Hunter, 2005). The landscape value of trees (Hough, 2004) is evident as several trees have been planted on the property. Some have been planted as memorials for past Niagara Parks Commission CEO's, others for the pure enhancement of appeal. Landscaping is evident with hedges and flowerbeds being added. To grasp plant species that have been put at risk, a look into the Species at Risk in Ontario (SARO) list is necessary. Several plants have evidently felt wrath to the vast expansion and population in the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario. Some of the plants on the list include American Chestnut, American Water-willow, Butternut, and Deerberry. An endangered species, the American chestnut, Castanea dentata, is a type of deciduous tree that grows alongside the likes of Red Oak, Black Cherry, Sugar Maple, American beech and other deciduous trees (Ontario.ca, 2020). Once a tree that would grow to be 30m tall, now only reaches heights of 5-10m. Although not necessarily endangered because of human activity, the changes to the land of not helped. Chestnut blight, a type of fungal disease is the main driver as to why this tree species struggles to reach the heights that it once did. Butternut, Juglans cinereal, another tree near Oak Hall estate that is on the endangered list. As well, a tree that does not see its worst fear in humans, but from fungi known as Butternut Canker. This fungal disease is known to kill trees in 3 years' time. Threatened plant species, meaning that they are on the verge of being endangered include both American Water-willow and Deerberry. American Water-willow, Justicia Americana, are an aquatic plant that see the most damage done by water quality and water levels (Ontario.ca, 2020). Things such as water quality and water levels are affected by human activity. Typically, residential and industrial activities do the most damage to these water qualities which sees this plant species near endangered. Deerberry, Vaccinium stamineum, is a type of plant similar to those that grow blueberries and cranberries. Often times located in areas close to trails, human trampling is one of the main beliefs for the why it is on the threatened species list. Being a food source for animals, it not only is vital for the plant's health, but this can have effects on animal species.

Animal Species

As an area with lots of opportunity for animals to habituate, it is no surprise that lots of wildlife is evident. From birds such as Geese to Blue jays to animals like black squirrels and insects (Hough, 2004). Many different animal species are able to thrive at this site as it is close to the Niagara River, has a small marsh/pond on the golf course, as well as an urban forest. The connectedness of animal and plant species is fascinating. If plant species are unable to thrive, it is unlikely that animals looking to inhabit Oak Hall Golf Course will be able to. Situated less than 50 meters away from the Niagara River, the human activity that has and continues to occur at this site, can easily have an impact on aquatic life in the river. Extensive research would need to be conducted to relate the human activity at this site to the harm that fish in the Niagara River incur. Therefore, animal species such as birds and insects will be looked at. The Cerulean Warbler, Setophaga cerulea, is a small songbird that feeds mostly of insects. The major cause for this bird being a threatened species is the loss of its habitat. Human activities have been the major cause for destroying habitats as trees and long grass, are cut down. Bobolink, scientifically known as Dolichonyx oryzivorus, have been listed as a threatened species since September 28, 2010 (Ontario.ca, 2020). Similar to the Cerulean Warbler, Bobolink see their habitats destroyed by human activities as they tend to nest in tall grass. These tall grass areas, for different reasons such as landscaping, construction, and agriculture get cut down leaving this species with less areas to nest. Transverse Lady Beetle, Coccinella transversoguttata, an insect species that has been on the endangered list since August 1, 2018. There are a number of reasons that have led to this species to become endangered. These include non-native lady beetle species that have created more competition for food and resources, species such as wasps that prey on lady beetles, as well as human disturbances. One species known to be extinct around this site is the Kidneyshell, Ptychobranchus fasciolaris, which was greatly harmed by pollution and siltation (Ontario.ca, 2020).

Human Intervention

It is unfortunate to see this many animal and plant species near the Oak Hall site threatened or endangered. With that being said, there is no direct linkage to these species being listed due to this exact site. There are connections that can be made, through the causes of their endangerment and practices that take place at the site, which show that it is likely for some of the human activity that has taken place in the past 100 years to have caused some damage. With the site in the control of the Niagara Parks Commission, it is hopeful for the future that both plant and animal species can survive in safer environments.

Once known as Clark Hill, the area was first recorded by Europeans who travelled to the area. Although not much was observed besides the waterfalls, recording of the land became more much evident during the 19^th century (Hayakawa & Matsukura, 2009). The land is full of unique soil deposits due to its relativity to the lakes (Holborn, 2018). Once under the Laurentide ice sheet nearly 12,500 years ago ("Niagara Falls Geological History | The Wisconsin Glacier – Niagara Falls Canada & USA", 2020), the area surrounding the Niagara River saw different topographic features formed. The site sits 183m above sea level, with the highest point of the site being the top of a tree (205m above sea level). Oak Hall Estate and Oak Hall Golf Course are situated at a much higher elevation than that of Niagara Parkway, which is in its backyard. This elevation change is evident on the topography map below. There is a brown line that depicts the elevation change along the eastern side of the site. While the site itself is relatively flat, there are clearly some hills that have been added for the purpose of the golf course. It can also be assumed that for the purpose of the construction of the estate itself, the land would have needed to be cleared of forested area, as well as levelled. For mansions, especially those the size of Oak Hall Estate, levelled land is much more desirable for building. There is currently no evidence of drastic elevation changes to the land through erosion or volcanic activity.

Glacier melting is the cause for the current shape of the Niagara River, as well as, the land that surrounds the river. Close proximity to the Niagara River means there are many drainage systems going down the escarpment along the east side of the site. Although, naturally water would run down the side of the hill to get to the lower elevation and eventually the river, drainage pipes have been installed that allow for more controlled water flow. Closely situated to Horseshoe Falls, erosion has played a huge role in retreating the cliff in which the water, falls. Due to the location of Goat Island, 90% of the flowing water in the Niagara River flows to Horseshoe Falls, whereas only 10% flows to American Falls (Hayakawa & Matsukura, 2009). The major difference in water flow that the two waterfalls see, explains the amount of erosion that has taken place at Horseshoe Falls and not at American Falls. In the picture below, there is a picture of a marsh on the golf course that has dried up. A marsh such as this one adds to the diversity of plant and animal species that can survive at the site. Golf courses often times see automatic irrigation systems installed to help keep the course on "prime condition". With this being said, Oak Hall Golf Course is only a 9-hole course, therefore they have not seen the need nor the financial benefit of installing such a system. Irrigation is still possible, however must be done manually. Manual irrigation leads to less water being used, as less leaks in the system occur. Impermeable surfaces are very evident as things such as brick patios have been built alongside the estate, as well as a paved driveway and parking lot (post 1980s). Paved surfaces can cause a handful of negative effects, some of which include surface runoff being increased and accelerated, less infiltration, and reduced evapotranspiration (Wessolek, 2008). Some negative issues that can arise from the proximity of the golf course/estate to the Niagara River are the amount of harmful substances that can get drained into the river. Fertilizers and pesticides that often get used for golf course maintenance are the main concern with this property. Chemicals within these substances can cause great harm to the aquatic species of both the marsh onsite, as well as those in the nearby river.

Due to the geographic location of the Oak Hall site, within the Niagara Peninsula, typically mild winters and temperate summers are experienced. This coincides greatly because of its location between two great lakes. According to Brown et al., 2010, Niagara is known for its humid continental climate, arctic air flow during the fall and spring, and subtropical air streams that tend to occur during spring and winter months. Along with the great destinations within the region, the comfortable weather that the region sees attracts many tourists. Starting in 1963, the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario saw a drastic increase in population ("History | City of Niagara Falls, Canada", 2020). Increases in both the development of the city and tourism popularity have seen alterations to the natural climate.

Since both the population and tourism developments have increased, urbanization is very evident in Niagara Falls, Canada. Macro-climates are developed partly because of these types of urbanization. When structures are built and pavement is used, more heat is stored which in turn helps create macro-climates (Hough, 2006). The use of asphalt and erection of buildings decreases the amount of evaporation that occurs, meanwhile it increases the amount of precipitation (Alberti, 2008). Riparian vegetation sees reductions when urbanization occurs, this in turn, negatively effects flood control. These examples of negative impacts that urbanization incurs, although creating macro-climates, do not bring huge amounts of change to the temperature. Temperature changes of a coupe degrees, maximum, can be expected.

Generation of urban development causes a spike in the amount of disturbance there is in a given area. Causing physical changes in an ecological system boost the risk of micro-climates. Activities such as tree and plant removal can increase the amount of energy it costs to energize a building ever so slightly. Leaves and plants help absorb moisture, as well as filter out pollutants from the air (Hough, 2004). When it comes to heating and cooling a building such as the pro shop at Oak Hall Golf Course or Oak Hall Estate, small things like these can make a difference. The harder the air conditioning unit has to work, the more of an effect that will occur outside of the building. In the golf industry especially, it is becoming increasingly important for superintendents to use safer practices to help prevent micro-climates from occurring. Less harmful herbicides and pesticides are becoming more common among maintaining courses, along with planting trees when opting to cut other trees down. Efforts such as these will help not only the golf industry, but other industries improve their practices which will lead to less micro-climate issues arising.

Around 1300 – 1400 A.D., there is evidence of the first human settlement in the area. Due to the period being before European settlement, there is little human induced harm that took place in the area. First known to settle in the area is a native tribe that called themselves "Onguiaahra" ("Niagara Falls Settlement History | Native Americans, Niagara Falls Canada & Niagara Falls USA", 2020). The name "Onguiaahra" means "the strait" or "thundering water" (Linkewich & Dhillon, 2018) which is very fitting given where their settlement was. When sounding out the name of the tribe, it is evident that this is one of the names that helped originate the name of the Niagara River. French explorers later came to the area and gave this tribe a new name. Now called "Neutrals", by the early 1600's they had a population upward of 20,000 – 40,000. Due to the many skills this tribe carried; they are seen as the reason the Niagara region got off to a good start with human existence.

Lake Ontario was first seen by Europeans in 1615. Etienne Brule, a scout under the well-known Samuel de Champlain, was the first European to visit Lake Ontario (Chocran-Stafira, 2013). Brule, a young scout, quickly learned the language used by Native Americans and was thus effective in making discoveries for Europeans. It was not until 1626 that Brule arrived in Niagara ("Niagara Falls Settlement History | Native Americans, Niagara Falls Canada & Niagara Falls USA", 2020). This year can be seen as the beginning of an onslaught of European explorers coming to the Niagara region. Looking forward to 19^th century, The War of 1812 took place partly in the Niagara region. The Battle at Chippewa being the closest battle site to today's Oak Hall.

Trade was common in the area due to the close proximity to the Niagara River and Lake Ontario. This trade was moved to the Welland Canal once it was constructed as St. Catharines was a more central location (Tunis, 1856), therefore creating easier access for trading. According to Tunis (1856), legislature approved a railway to be constructed that would connect the Niagara River, Hamilton, and the Detroit River. This rail-line was completed in 1853 and known as the Great Western Railway. Today there is lots of evidence of the impact that humans made in the region through the use of railways. Many of these railways, although not all in use, can be seen leading to the industrial parts of cities like St Catharine's and Niagara Falls.

Currently, the site of Oak Hall Estate holds the headquarters for the Niagara Parks Commission. This organization is one of the main sources for information about the Niagara region, especially Niagara Falls. Much of the building has been preserved to look as original as possible. Rooms throughout the building are used for the purpose of display, helping portray the wealthy style of the 1920's Tudor mansion. Establishing office spaces in the Oak Hall Estate has forced the NPC to up-keep the building and the property in which it lays on. History experts employed by the NPC are often on-site which allows for information about the site to be easily accessed. As a destination on the maps that are often handed out by Niagara Parks, it enables those who view the map to identify assets that make the area distinct (Baeker & Hanna, 2009).

Since the purchase of the Oak Hall Estate was made by the Niagara Parks Commission, they have since paved a driveway, parking lot, and drop-off loop. At the front entrance of the property (off of Portage Rd), a building as erected for the purpose of a golf shop. The building used as the golf shop was built using the same aesthetic as Oak Hall Estate. Architectural heritage on-site will continue to be preserved for as long as NPC has ownership of the property. History through the property can be very useful for education, as well as displaying old-time Niagara Falls wealth (Ahmadi, 2016).

Golf is one of the largest recreation sectors in Canada. Due to the importance that climate plays in the golf season, Niagara is one of the best regions for the sport to succeed in (Scott & Jones, 2007). The preferred climate of the region allows courses to stay open longer. The Oak Hall Golf Course makes this destination a great place for recreation. As an executive golf course, it makes for a great place for locals to get out and play as well as the large number of tourists that the region sees during the summer months (Brooker, Burgess, & Jayawardena (2008)). Located on the property owned by the Niagara Parks Commission, those who maintain the golf course work for the NPC.

Beginning in 1952, the Niagara Parks Commission purchased the land in which the Oak Hall Estate rests on. Since purchasing the land, they built an executive golf course on the property (in front of the estate). Niagara Parks, the shortened name of the agency, is an agency under the Government of Ontario. Although the location does not hold a large number of tours due to the estates function being more for administrative purposes, public access is permitted to this Local Landscape area. Executive golf courses play a huge role in promoting the public to golf. Very cost-friendly options for golfing with lower level of difficulty make these kinds of courses family friendly. Closed for the 2020 season, the golf course will hopefully make a bounce back for the 2021 golf season.

As a site owned by Niagara Parks, there has been a huge influence on determining the way that the site looks today. Oak Hall Estate, today, looks very similar to how it did when it was first built in 1926. Surrounding areas such as a nearby industrial park is now very run down and is not as old as the estate. This is great news as it shows the willingness of Niagara Parks to upkeep historic sites that can have multiple purposes. The addition of the golf course creates a reasonably priced recreational activity in an area (Niagara region) that sees many golf courses offer high-priced green fees. Since most of the site is a golf course, lawn mowers are typically used 7 days a week to maintain the course. While golf courses create plenty of habitat spaces for plant and animal species (Schabaker et al., 2014), they can, over time cut out more plant species. This in turn has an effect on the animal species that previously nested within the plant. Being on the edge of a forest creates the chance of the forest underlay being pushed back each year.

Vehicle access to the site is limited to Portage Road only. There is only one driveway that runs onto the property and it is located on a street with a medium-high rate of traffic. Portage Road, which opened in 1790 ("History | City of Niagara Falls, Canada", 2020), has been a road that many in the area use to travel. Extending from Main Street in Chippawa until it turns into St. Paul Avenue in the north side of Niagara Falls. Driving on Portage Avenue provides a great view of both the golf course and Oak Hall Estate. Along the southeast side of the Oak Hall property, the forest backs onto Dufferin Isle Road which runs alongside the isle that connects to the Niagara River. While the east side of the property sees its escarpment back onto the Niagara Parkway, which runs alongside the Niagara River. Close proximity to both the isle and the river itself, creates linkages between the property and waterways. For example, the recession of Horseshoe Falls has brought the main attraction of the destination closer to Oak Hall. In hundreds of years, it is expected that the cliff in which the water flows down, could be much closer to Oak Hall. Currently, from the site there is a great view of the clouds of mist that are generated from the falls.

Over time, spots connected to the Oak Hall site have had effect on the site or been affected by the site. Being close in proximity to a busy street such as Portage Rd, the chemicals released from motor vehicles over time would have negative effects on the plant species that border the street. Litter that comes from the vehicles passing by can harm animal species tremendously as it may have toxic material or act harmfully when consumed. Looking at ways the site possibly changed its surrounding area, can be done by looking at the ways in which occurrences on-site can affect the surrounding waterways. During the winter, sodium chloride is the primary source of de-icer for roads, parking lots, and sidewalks. Once the sodium chloride from the pavement gets washed down eventually into the water, this can inflate the chlorine ions in the water (Paul & Meyer, 2008). Oil stains occur often in parking lots. The oil particles that get washed into the drainage, end up in the Niagara River which can be harmful on aquatic species (Paul & Meyer, 2008).

Niagara Parks Commission; Oak Hall; P.O. Box 150; 7400 Portage Road; Niagara Falls, ON L2E 6T2; Phone: 1 (877) 642-7275

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Schabaker, J., Gerlach, J., Münderle, M., Dietzen, C. & Ludwigs, J. D. (2014). Focal bird species and risk assessment approach for nonagricultural grassland scenarios in Central Europe: Focal birds on golf courses for pesticide risk assessment. Environment toxicology and chemistry, 33 (9), 2055-2061. doi: 10.1002/etc.2652

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This Local Landscape Report was prepared by Seth McMahon for the Brock University course TMGT 2P94: Human Dominated Ecosystems on November 12, 2020.

All copyrights for cited material rest with the original copyright owners.