"Hal Singer Biography", accessed November 21, 2017, http://www.halsingergroup.com/pages/bio_gb.html.

Leslie Gourse, "Jazz Liberates Paris," American Heritage, accessed November 21, 2017, http://www.americanheritage.com/content/jazz-liberates-paris.

Rashida Braggs, Excerpt from "Jazz Diasporas: Race, Music, and Migration in Post-World War II Paris," Journal of Transnational American Studies (2016): 2.

"Succès Story," Aux Trois Mailletz, accessed November 22, 2017, https://www.auxtroismailletz.com/succes-story.

Singer migrated to France during a period where racial tensions were apparent in the United States. While racism still existed in Paris, the French people were generally more appreciative of the art of jazz than Americans[1]. The idea of biologic determinism led the French audience to believe that being black enabled musicians to play the rising jazz genre well[2]. In comparison to earlier artists, like Bechet, Singer was welcomed in Paris due to the population's belief that his race would benefit the jazz scene amongst the city. Audiences are regarded as saying that "There [was] a Negro way of playing the violin, a Negro way of singing"[3] that differed from the capabilities of white musicians and thus, increased the quality of their music.

Singer was a figurehead for Paris Noir, a group of African American jazz musicians who had moved to the city[4]. The group was representative of the relationship between black immigrant musicians and their new community in Paris. Singer and the group had the desire to immerse themselves in French culture and make connections between the vastly different experiences of the Americans and the French, with and without regards to music[5].

While Singer was embraced by a more welcoming environment in Paris, his music was not as initially successful as he had originally hoped[6]. This can be partially attributed to the discrimination surrounding employment of black musicians and the controversy fueled by their success. With the increase of African American musicians moving to Paris, white musicians saw their opportunities for employment decreasing. The public viewed black musicians' skills as superior, thus further infuriating white people in the industry[7]. White musicians went as far as protesting and involving police in matters of discontent over black employment[8].

In addition to outrage in the music industry, government officials and traditional citizens feared that the influx of American musicians into Paris would Americanize the postwar French culture[9]. In an effort to appease economic and cultural concerns, the government instituted restrictions limiting the employment of black musicians[10], which ultimately damaged improvements in race relations within the city.

For decades, Singer used his experiences of racial acceptance and rejection in the music industry to bring wisdom and mentorship to youth and veterans interested in the art of jazz[11]. Singer's performance at Les Trois Mailletz and the narrative of his treatment in Paris conveys the conflicting ideals of the French. While society was gradually becoming increasing racially accepting and appreciating of the talent had by black musicians, traditionalists and government had fears of jazz's negative cultural and economic influence.

[1] Rashida Braggs, Excerpt from "Jazz Diasporas: Race, Music, and Migration in Post-World War II Paris," Journal of Transnational American Studies (2016): 4.

[2] Jeffrey Jackson, "Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934" French Historical Studies (2002): 151.

[3] Ibid., 154.

[4] Rashida Braggs, Excerpt from "Jazz Diasporas: Race, Music, and Migration in Post-World War II Paris," Journal of Transnational American Studies (2016): 2.

[5] Ibid., 3.

[6] Ibid., 2.

[7] Jeffrey Jackson, "Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934" French Historical Studies (2002): 154.

[8] Jeffrey Jackson, "Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934" French Historical Studies (2002): 155.

[9] Ibid., 156.

[10] Ibid., 157.

[11] Rashida Braggs, Excerpt from "Jazz Diasporas: Race, Music, and Migration in Post-World War II Paris," Journal of Transnational American Studies (2016): 2.