Jaycee Gardens Park is located just off of Ontario Street near the Port Dalhousie Ward of St. Catharines Ontario. Today, there is parking onsite and the public is free to enjoy walking in the open spaces, as well as the horticultural displays and passive recreation. There are open-grass areas that are available for picnics or other leisure activities. The park has many other physical features including tall tress, playgrounds, and walking paths. Throughout history mankind has had a lot of impact on this site, more then just shaping the trails and planting trees. After the Second World War, Niagara became a hotspot for housing, which resulted in lots of urban development. The surrounding land around the park is an urban community where lots of families live. Jaycee Park is important, and significant for further study because in the past this land was once used as the Welland Canal. The canal was finalized in 1887 and shut down in 1930. Today a new, more efficient route exists, while the old canal was filled in with dirt. You can still tell where the old canal used to run, as it is the highest hill in the park, and lies under the body of evergreens. Its highest elevation is 92M and lowest is 79M. The park is important in terms of the physical elements, such as water, dirt, and rocks. The park is biodiverse, with an abundance of species and plant communities that live in the ecosystem. Beautiful views of Martindale Pond can be found at the west and north ends of the park. Currently the park provides an area of space for families to enjoy, rather than the typical community setting.

Municipality: St. Catharines

Local area name: Port Dalhousie / LakePort

Other identifying names or descriptions: Royal Henley Park, just north of the city of St. Catharines, off of Martindale Pond. South of Lake Ontario.

Latitude and longitude: 43.11'30.01"N & -79.16'03.09"W

Physical Dimension:

Length: .75 Kilometres

Width: .25 Kilometres

Surface Area: Approximately 1 sq. Kilometre

Elevation:

Highest/lowest 92m / 79m

Jaycee Gardens Park, throughout history has been used, as critical economic prosperity in the Niagara region. The park is located north of the city of St. Catharines. Located between two of the largest bodies of water in North America; Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, originally settled by the aboriginal peoples of the neutral nation (Brown et al., 2010 p. 41). Jaycee Gardens was not originally planned to be used as a park. The land area around the park was a relatively early settlement area for individuals in the Niagara Region because from 1887-1931 what is now the Jaycee Gardens Park was used as the third Welland Canal. Many urban settlement communities emerged with the success of the Welland Canals. The fourth Welland Canal was built in 1931 and the old canal is filled in with dirt, and presently has evergreens planted on top of it. You can tell where the Welland Canal used to run, as the stone walls of lock two are exposed at the north end of the park. There is a winding path that runs through the entire park, called the Green Ribbon trail, which is dedicated to all missing children. At the northern end of the park the city of St. Catharines implemented a walking bridge to connect hikers or bicyclists from Jaycee Gardens Park over Martindale pond to Rennie Park in Port Dalhousie. Martindale Pond is located at the beginning of twelve mile creek. Along the path in the park there are many hills, and visitors get to experience a park with rich history imbedded within it. The surrounding areas towards the east and west ends of the park is commercial as well as residential land uses. With extensive human impact, the area went from being the hub of transportation from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, and is now a green-space park for locals to enjoy. Jaycee Gardens Park goes to illustrate how Canadians can have dramatic impacts on how a particular land area is shaped and utilized. Economic prosperity and cultural attitudes determine land shapes and uses all around the world. This report will examine the history of the third Welland Canal and how locks two and three came to be Jaycee Gardens Park.

Figure 1a) Standing in the parking lot of Jaycee Gardens park, looking north-west. (Source: Google Street View).

Figure 1b) Close aerial view of Jaycee Gardens Park in 2016 (Source: Google Earth).

Jaycee Gardens Park is an urbanized environment, constructed over many years. It is not a natural landscape, and because of this, there is not as much biota in this sector as you might find in a forest in the Niagara region simply because it is surrounded by houses rather than forestry. However, there is still a great deal of plant and wildlife found in Jaycee Gardens. In part because of Martindale Pond. The water surrounding the park has a large impact on the types of plant and wildlife that prosper in Jaycee Gardens. City of St. Catharines employees, and community volunteers all help plant a variety of different types of trees in the park, pine trees, and cedar trees, as well as many more. Additionally, perennial flowers can be found in the park that can last through the Canadian summers and winters. As Hough examines, "Plants are environment specific, evolving different forms and communities that have adopted to specific climates, rainfall, soil, and physiographic types" (2004, p.86). The trees planted in Jaycee Gardens are resistant to a number of diseases, and satisfy the environmental and cultural demands of urban conditions (Hough, 2004 p.88).

Unfortunately, Jaycee Gardens is not the most pristine environment for wildlife, due to roads around the south side of the park. Further, urbanization around the park has great potential to drive many animals out. Not many mammals live in Jaycee Gardens although it is a hidden wildlife habitat for a variety of animals. The grassland and open water surrounding the park can serve as a positive habitat for a variety of wildlife (Hough, 2004, p.131). Wildlife such as, squirrels, raccoons, skunks, rabbits, muskrats and groundhogs. These types of animals have been able to adapt to the urbanization around them. Thousands of small insects and other invertebrates are attracted to the habitat that the moist flowerbeds of the park have to offer.

The park is surrounded by a community of many urban homes. Villages are built just off of Ontario Street, east and west of the park. Later on in the presentation, it is evident in the aerial photos from the 1960s- 1970s that many homes were built in the area which could drive out many birds by taking away potential habitats. Although, certain species are able to adapt to the development around them. Aside from birds, Martindale Pond is a potential habitat for many types of fish and wildlife; large mouth bass, catfish, frogs, turtles and even snakes.

b) Geomorphology:

Throughout history, there has been many human induced changes to the area. Physical features of Jaycee Gardens park are remarkable because of humans drastic impact to the land. Jaycee Gardens was artificially man-made following the filling in of the canal. Unfortunately, there are no aerial photos that date back prior to 1987, so we are unable to see what the land looked like prior to the Welland Canal being dug. In 1878 the area was excavated to implement the second and third locks of the third Welland Canal. Much of the earth's soil was removed to make the locks deep and wide enough for the large ships to pass through. Stone walls were used in the third canal as opposed to wood in order to control the water levels. The filling in of the canal caused the park to have a very interesting topography. Part of the centre of the park is flat but there are hills and berms located towards the edges of the park. When the canal was filled back in, a berm was created on top of the old Canal. As you can see in the aerial photos that follow, the surrounding land was used for agricultural purposes for much of the twentieth century.

Towards the northern end of Jaycee Gardens Parks is Martindale Pond. Martindale Pond is located just south of Lake Ontario. Located in northern St. Catharines between the Henley Bridge and the Port Dalhousie Harbour, "It is a unique area that belongs to the Twelve Mile Creek watershed system" ("Niagara Greenbelt", 2012). The overall land has a surface area of more than 2 kilometres including 91 hectares of water reservoir ("Niagara Greenbelt", 2012). Many kayakers use Martindale pond to get out on the water for recreation and leisure activities. Overtime with Martindale Pond to the northern end of the park, water has washed up against the stream banks and eroded soils. Over many years the water has caused sedimentation within the pond.

As you can see if you look closely at the aerial photos of the park in 1921, and 1954, there has always been a parking lot located east of the park. Since the filling in of the canal in 1931, a lot of work was completed in order to make the park look what it looks like today. Grass was planted and year after year it flourishes in Jaycee gardens. You can also tell most of the trees are still relatively young. Many of them have been planted over the past several decades since the filling in of locks two and three. Now that they are maturing the park is truly beautiful all year round.

Preceding to the filling in of the canal, the hydrology of the land was naturally altered in different ways. Natural changes to Martindale pond over the years causes water level changes. When it was used as the second and third Welland Canals many ships passed through. The natural process was changed due to human involvement. With glaciers continuing to melt in the north and the result of global warming, water levels rise globally. Additionally, the hydrological process inside Jaycee Gardens is altered because many people use these spaces and it has the potential to pollute water courses.

The hydrological process within Jaycee gardens attributes to support for fish and wildlife habitats in Martindale Pond, as well as plant life inside the park. Water transports large amounts of sediments and nutrients and alters the earth's surface through erosion and deposition (Dunne and Leopold, 1978). Correspondingly, to human alteration of the land for many different uses, we have made a drastic changes to the hydrological process. Most rainfall either gets absorbed by the biota and water tables beneath the ground or filtered back into the atmosphere through 'evapo-transpiration' (Alberti, 2008, p.192). Water will also navigate into Martindale Pond off of steam banks located at the northern end of the park. There are many steep banks that runoff into Martindale Pond. Surface runoff is a major cause of erosion (Alberti, 2008, p. 141). Many nutrients, pesticides from neighbouring communities, toxins and bacteria runoff, which changes the quality of water in Martindale Pond. Through Google Earths special features, we can see which way rain will flow in Jaycee Gardens Park.The northern end of the park will experience a high percentage of the runoff.

Figure 3): Aerial view/graph of Jaycee Gardens Park's elevation (Source: Google Earth).

Human induced changes include damming for the Martindale Pond, building the 3^rd Welland Canal and then later filling it in. As urbanization changes land use, more nutrients are exported from land to water bodies (i.e., phosphorous and nitrogen), changing nutrient regimes and causing changes in ecosystem processes. These changes then feed back into the water cycle through evapotranspiration, soil moisture levels, and a variety of hydrological responses (Alberti, 2008, p. 142). There is a parking lot located on the site which is a impermeable surface. It changes where water is able to flow throughout the park and where it is absorbed. "Impervious surfaces such as paved roads, parking lots, sidewalks (paved trails in Jaycee Gardens) & rooftops stop rainfall and snowmelt from infiltrating soil and ground water, increasing the volume and speed of runoff" (Alberti, 2008, p.136). Blacktop changes lots. If it rains on a natural environment, like a forest it waters the plants, and in this case the many trees found in Jaycee Gardens.

Furthermore, Urban infrastructure and houses that surround Jaycee Gardens Park dramatically redefine basic elements that determine water drainage or absorption across the land. Elevation changes by approximately ten metres because of the hills within the park. Through gravity, water flows through the soil and back into the oceans (Alberti, 2008, p.137). Through human activities in Jaycee Gardens Park we have extended, and intensified frequency and distribution of the hydrological process (Alberti, 2008 p.153). Not only have we altered the land uses for Jaycee Gardens, but through human interference we alter aquatic ecosystems in Martindale Pond as well. The recently added bridge at the north end of the park that is connecting Jaycee Gardens to Rennie Park as well as human pollution has changed Martindale Pond over the years. As you can see later in the report in the aerial photos from 1921-2016.

The center of Jaycee Gardens Park is relatively open. It is exposed to snowfall and rainfall as well as a lot of sunlight. Because of human induced changes to the land, Jaycee Gardens Park takes a narrow bowl-like shape. The outside of the park is a higher elevation because of how the third Welland canal was dug, and then later filled in. Since it was so deep, when the Canal was filed in the city of St. Catharines it wasn't levelled off with the surrounding area. You can tell where the canal ran as there is now more of a berm surrounding it. A group of evergreens is planted directly on top of where the canal used to run. The back lots of properties that back onto the park are elevated up higher, causing Jaycee Gardens to take on a bowl-like shape. There are many many trees within the park, and this is important because trees are very important for local climate control, as they provide a lot of shade. In the summer time, the park is extraordinarily green, and in the fall the leaves change to many gorgeous colours. In the winter the park is delightful to see covered in snow.

Though the park land is not located at a high elevation on the escarpment, in the summer months the grass, gardens and tress all receive efficient sunlight, as there are no tall buildings blocking its access. This makes it significantly warmer in the park. Although some areas don't receive as much sunlight due to tall trees, some areas there is more dirt rather than grass.

The winter in Jaycee Gardens park is relatively cold, due to the open area through the centre of the park. Wind easily picks up with no shields to the elements, other then trees located around the outside of the park. The rainwater, as well as snowfall is absorbed in the ground and flowerbeds, and also runs off into Martindale Pond.

The first settlements around Port Dalhousie and Lakeport consisted of a grouping of farms in the early 1800s, "Settlers were lured by the natural harbour, good farmland, plentiful timber, and beautiful scenery. Indian trails along with the waterway provided easy transportation" (Shearer, 2000, p. 2). Jaycee Gardens Park has a very intriguing history because it was not originally planned to be used as a recreational facility. Prior to the land being used as a recreational land space for the community to enjoy, as previously mentioned, it was the location of the third Welland Canal. Preceding to the deforestation and construction of the third Welland Canal in 1878, the land would have been used as hunting or fishing grounds for natives. This land area appealed to settlers greatly because of its close proximity to water. Being on the banks of Martindale Pond, the area is rich in soil, which was great for growing crops prior to the urbanization. Overtime trees were cut-down and the land was used as agricultural land. This is evident in the arial photos from 1921.

What is now Jaycee Gardens park has gone through extensive changes in the past. The topography of the area was extremely important because it was the most ideal location to build the third canal. In the 1870s the Canal Commission realized the importance of the size and volume of ship traffic through the second Welland Canal and they knew that another, more direct and efficient route had to be built. It was necessary to create a new route with fewer locks to allow for more, and bigger ships to get from lake Ontario to Lake Erie in a shorter period of time. The new route of the third canal still began in Port Dalhousie, but was cut diagonally from northwest to southeast from Port Dalhousie to east of Thorold ("Old Welland Canal Field Guide", 2012). The land was transformed into the new route for the third Welland Canal, as lock two began at the northern end of the park.

It is astonishing to think that for over 40 years boats transferred through Jaycee Gardens Park to get back and forth from Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. The land use has completely changed from an economic source through agriculture, then later transportation; into a passive recreational land space. Eventually the canal was transferring more and more larger boats so the city built the fourth and current Welland Canal in 1931. Later, sometime in 1931 the the third Welland Canal was filled in with dirt. With a lot of planning and effort into pouring cement paths, and planting trees, the area would later become Jaycee Gardens Park. For over forty years the surrounding area has been used as a residential area, where many families live in the community.

Many landscapes around the world express relationships between the people that have live there, or work there and the physical attributes of that place. There is a relevant intersection of these social realities evident in the Niagara region. Due to the history of the third Welland Canal, it can be predicted that Jaycee Gardens has a long, linear shape. Since Jaycee Gardens Park is home to the second and third locks of the third Welland Canal, there is lots of information that can be sought out form various resources. There is a Welland Canal Museum, as well as various websites and different types of maps explaining the history of the site.

The most important architectural feature of this landscape is the third Welland canal. Operating for many years the Welland Canal brought a lot of economic prosperity to the region. The Welland Canal helped prosper urbanization of towns that eventually grew into cities of St Catharines, Thorold, and Welland. As the plaque in the picture below describes, the Canal was fourteen feet deep and forty feet wide. The Canal served as a major passage for many boats throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Ships would move into one lock to another through raising and lowering water levels. A system of valves and water passages raise and lower the water in each lock. The third Welland Canal had a total of twenty six stone locks. An operator would open one of the lock gates at the high end and a ship would enter. Once the lock gates close, the operator opens a drain so water can become level, then the ship would move into the next lock and the same thing would be done over and over again.to move the ship upstream the procedure is done in the same way, just reverse.

Figure 4a & b) These photos show the original cement bollard used in the third Welland Canal. Photos by: Braiden Weston (October 14th, 2016).

A small portion of the stone walls of lock two are still detectable and this stone bollard with a plaque still remains as a monument of the Canal. The large orange shape on-top of the bollard (in the picture above) was once used for large ships to tie off to. Currently, there is only one building found on site. It is used as storage for gardening tools, equipment and supplies such as tractors and mulch in order for the park to be well-kept.There are several interesting places to walk around and explore in Jaycee Gardens where the history of the cite is evident.

Just north of the bollard display is an almost covered weir. This weir once allowed excess water to bypass lock two of the third Welland Canal. The weir is easy to miss if you're not looking for it ("Old Welland Canal Field Guide", 2012).

Figure 5) Weir located at the north end of the park (Source: "Old Welland Canal Field Guide", 2012).

One important feature of the park is the memorial that stands off of the Green Ribbon Trail. A memorial dedicated to Kristen French, is located in the middle of the park. This memorial is important to the local St. Catharines community that was impacted by the devastating murder of Kristen French in 1992 ("Niagara Greenbelt", 2012).

Figure 6: Kristen French memorial. Photo by: Braiden Weston (October 14th 2016).

Recreational Uses:

Jaycee National Park serves as a great recreational facility as there is a municipal trail all throughout the park. It is the Green Ribbon trail that is in memory of all missing children. It is a nice place to take your dog for a walk, or just get some fresh air. There are also many hills in the park where local residence will workout in the warmer months. Individuals may obtain permits to host wedding and other events in the park. There are plenty of benches and shaded areas to enjoy a nice afternoon picnic, and a playground for the children to play on. People bring their children to take them tobogganing in the winter months, as there are lots of hills around the outside of the park. There is also an annual Easter egg hunt put on by the St. Catharines Jaycees. The annual easter egg hunt put on by the community of St. Catharines, and welcomes children from ages 1 through 10 to join the celebration. With over 50,000 eggs to find, it is sure to keep the kids busy and active (Jaycee Easter Egg Hunt, 2012). The hunt is going on its 30th consecutive year this year. You may apply online at the city of St. Catharines website for permits to host special events in the park such as weddings.

Jaycee Gardens Park land is municipally owned by the city of St. Catharines. St. Catharines Jaycees are community group that manages the park. They are an advisory committee that works under the St. Catharines City Council. Public access is permitted in Jaycee Gardens Park. There is a playground for children and a walking trail for the community all through the park. There are also many benches and shaded grassy areas for families to relax and enjoy the park.

Because Jaycee Garden's is where the former Welland Canal ran, the shape of the park is distinct. The land follows a long and narrow shape. Jaycee Park is known today for its horticultural beauty, "Visitors can enjoy walking, open space, horticultural displays and passive recreation" ("St. Catharines Website", 2016). In order to ensure this beauty, the St. Catharines Jaycees and park crews have a big influence on how the park is shaped and maintained. They plant the flowers, and trees, as well as cut down dead trees, cut the grass, and pick up sticks. When the summers are dry, city employees or facility caretakers are hired to use water trucks to water the flower beds and keep them clear of weeds.

Jaycee Garden's Park is surrounded by many different land uses. As the report mentioned earlier, towards the south of the park is Ontario street. A very important road in the area. The northern side of the park, as previously mentioned is surrounded by Martindale pond. This is very important because if Martindale Pond was not there then the third Welland Canal would not have been able to run through the land in the past. In 2013 the city of St. Catharines built a bridge at the northern end of the park. This bridge is significant today because it connects locals living in Port Dalhousie to the park. The bridge causes more locals to make use of the park. The east and west sides of the park are adjacent to urbanized areas. Many communities of homes surround the sides of the park. As well as a few small commercial areas. There is a carwash and a local convenient store located on the east and west sides of the park, off of Ontario street.

Between 1969 and 1978 the surrounding area to the west, east, and even south of the park was changed from agricultural land to urban community. If you look closely at aerial photos that follow, you can see drastic changes to the land use. What was once acres of agricultural crops owned by farmers was quickly developed into communities. When the surrounding area was turned into urban homes, Jaycee Gardens got more focus. From the closing of the canal in 1931, until the development of the land in in seventies, the old canal had not gotten much attention. Now that urbanization had taken place, the community needed a green space, "The intention was to surround the housing with all the informality of the countryside and to create an educational landscape geared to unstructured, natural play environments" (Hough, 2004, p. 103). This land later became known as Jaycee Gardens Park.

St. Catharines locals are lucky to have such a beautiful park to enjoy, with rich history embedded within it. The change from land use of the Welland Canal into a park is widely viewed as positive, considering Welland has a fourth Welland canal now. Though Jaycee Gardens serves as a lovely recreational facility today, it could have been used as another tourist attraction in the Niagara region. Cities such as Ottawa and Trenton still have their old canals in the same shape they were in when they were exercised. This attracts a lot of historical tourists interested in the region. Granting, "the park has gone a long way to beautify the community of St. Catharines and provide a positive experience for the park's visitors" ("Niagara Greenbelt", 2012).

Jaycee Gardens Park

543 Ontario Street

Between Ontario Street and Martindale Pond

St. Catharines Museum & Welland Canal Centre

1932 Welland Canals Pkwy (at Lock 3)

St. Catharines, ON L2R 7K6

Tel: 905.984.8880 or 1-800-305-5134

Citizens First

50 Church Street

St. Catharines, ON L2R 7C2

Phone: 905- 688-5600

The Historical Society of St. Catharines

Box 25017

221 Glendale Ave., Pen Centre

St. Catharines, ON L2T 4C4

Website: http://stcatharineshistory.wordpress.com/category/st-catharines/

Alberti, M. (2008). Hydrological Processes. In Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating humans and ecological processes in urban ecosystems (pp. 133-161). New York: Springer. Brock University Library Catalogue, (accessed October 28th, 2016).

Alberti, M. (2008). Landscape Signatures. In Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating humans and ecological processes in urban ecosystems (pp. 93-112). New York: Springer. Brock University Library Catalogue, (accessed October 28th, 2016).

Bird Web. (2016). http://birdweb.org/birdweb/bird/red-winged_blackbird

Brown, D., Middleton, J., & Vaughan, K. (2010). The Land Between the Lakes – An Overview of the Niagara Region. Part One: The Niagara Region, 41-55.

Canadian Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. Air Photo Division. [Niagara] [airphoto]. Scale: 1;12, 500. Roll 6086-126. Photo 148. 1969. Ottawa, Ontario, 1969.

Easter Egg Hunt on Deck for Jaycee Gardens. (2014). Accessed October 20th 2016, from ://www.stcatharinesstandard.ca/2014/05/18/woma...

Hough, M. (2004). City Farming. Cities and Natural Process : A Basis for Sustainability. (pp. 159 - 188). London: Routledge. Brock University eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), (accessed October 24th, 2016).

Hough, M. (2004). Plants and Plant Communities. Cities and Natural Process : A Basis for Sustainability. (pp. 86-129). London: Routledge. Brock University eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), (accessed October 26th, 2016).

Hough, M. (2004). Wildlife. Cities and Natural Process : A Basis for Sustainability. (pp. 130 - 159). London: Routledge. Brock University eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), (accessed October 26th, 2016).

Jaycee Easter Egg Hunt (2012). Niagara Greenbelt. http://www.niagaragreenbelt.com/site-map/722-jayce... accessed November 8th 2016.

Jaycee Gardens Park (2012). Niagara Greenbelt. accessed November 1st 2016. http://www.niagaragreenbelt.com/listings/76-parks-...

Jaycee Gardens Park [air photo]. (2016). Google Maps.

Jaycee Gardens Park, 1921. [air photo]. (2016). Niagara Region: Area Municipalities and Partners. Retrieved from https://www.brocku.ca/library/collections/MDG/brock-campus-aerial-views on October 29th, 2016.

Jaycee Gardens Park, 1931. [air photo] (2016). Retrieved from https://www.brocku.ca/library/collections/MDG/brock-campus-aerial-views on October 29th, 2016.

Jaycee Gardens Park, 1934. [air photo]. (2016). Google Earth.

Brock Library. Jaycee Gardens Park, 1954. [air photo]. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.brocku.ca/library/collections/MDG/brock-campus-aerial-views on October 29th, 2016.

Jaycee Gardens Park, 2016 [air photo]. (2016). Google Earth

Martindale Marsh (2012). Niagara Greenbelt. Accessed November 1st 2016 http://www.niagaragreenbelt.com/listings/73-natura...

Niagara Greenbelt. (2012). Accessed November 1st 2016, http://www.niagaragreenbelt.com/listings/76-parks-gardens-a-conservation-areas/994-jaycee-park.html

Ontario Jaycee Gardens Park. (2012). St. Catharines Website. Accessed October 30th https://www.stcatharines.ca/en/playin/OntarioJayce...Niagara Navigator. (2013). Online Aerial photos.

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources. [Niagara] [airphoto]. scale 1: 10, 000. Roll [4314-52-196]. Photo [106]. Toronto Ontario, 1978.

Shaw, A.B. (2005). The Niagara Peninsula viti-cultural area; a climatic analysis of Canada's largest wine region. Journal of Wine research.

Shearer, W. (2000). The Port Dalhousie Heritage Conservation District Study. Heritage Assessment Report, Prepared for the City of St. Catharines. Accessed: November 3rd 2016. From: http://www.stcatharines.ca/en/documents/documentup...

The Old Welland Canals Field Guide. (2013). Accessed September 21, 2016, from http://oldwellandcanals.wikidot.com/north-st-catha...

This Local Landscape Report was prepared by Braiden Weston for the Brock University course TOUR 2P94: Human Dominated Ecosystems on November 11th, 2016.

All copyrights for cited material rest with the original copyright owners.