Forty Mile Creek begins on the upper Niagara escarpment, where it's headwaters are located within the municipalities of West Lincoln and Hamilton. From these sites, the creeks water flows down the escarpment through Beamer Falls, then runs across the downtown area of Grimsby where it channels into Lake Ontario. At the mouth of the creek, a historical site known as the 1812 Bicentennial Peace Garden memorialises the 200 years of peace between Canada and the United States since the war of 1812. At this location, a scenic view of Lake Ontario is displayed signifying the area's stunning landscape and stimulates the sensation of relaxion. Forty Mile Creek's natural landscape is a part of the Niagara watershed and drains into Lake Ontario. In one point of time the creek was a thriving fishery that was operated by the Hand family in the 1880s as they owned land surrounding the mouth of the creek. Due to environmental changes caused by human development the fishery was devastated as dams and chemical pollutants were introduced within Lake Ontario during the early 19th and 20th century. This restricted fish from spawning and significantly lowered the salmon and trout populations. Since then, many major water restoration projects have been implemented and have successfully increased the quality of life for aquatic organisms within Lake Ontario following its connecting creeks and rivers. Native plant species such as bearberry and elderberries are commonly found along the Forty Mile Creek side trail which were also used by the indigenous as medicine while they settled in this area. Forty Mile Creek has changed over time, as its supply of natural resources have been affected by human development. It still provides signs of its many different species such as herbs, plants, and aquatic organisms but is still not as diverse as it once was. Within the last century this site has been transformed into an ecological attraction that caters its space for recreational use. A public boat launch, trail and dog park are located West of the creek's mouth on 447 Elizabeth Street, Grimsby. The side trail connects to the Bruce Trail allowing visitors to explore the Niagara Peninsula and its unique sites of natural landscapes.
Municipality: (e.g., Grimsby)
Local area name: (e.g., Forty Mile Creek)
Other identifying names or descriptions (e.g., N/A)
Latitude and longitude: 43.203824915886564, -79.55291625093736
Physical Dimensions
Length: 2.4km
Width: 75m
Surface Area: 0.643 km2
Elevation: 75m above sea level (From Point of Interest – Forty Mile Creek Park on Elizabeth Street)
Highest point: 180m (Beamer Falls)
Lowest point: 74m (Near Forty Mile Creek Park)
Forty Mile Creek is situated within the Niagara region, it is located in a town known as Grimsby. This natural watershed is unique, as it runs through the downtown core of the township. The creek provides lots of amenities for public use and provides sustainability, as this natural landscape is located in the center of a developing town which is used to its maximum potential while being eco-friendly. A side trail that is roughly 1.7km in length is found near the end of Forty Mile Creek, where it flows into Lake Ontario. The side trial can be accessed on the Lake Street/Ontario Street intersection or at 447 Elizabeth St. Within the Elizabeth Street side trail entrance area, there is a large parking lot, dog park, public canoe/kayak launch, bicentennial peace garden, pier, and the historic Elizabeth Street Pump House that is available for public use. On the upper escarpment in Grimsby, Forty Mile Creek flows down a waterfall known as Beamer Falls. This site is located on Ridge Road West and provides two parking areas, the Bruce-trail, connecting side-trails, and various lookout points. Since the selected area is quite large, it was determined that most of the information would be focused on the lower portion of the creek. Specifically focusing on the Creek between the areas of Beamer Falls and the mouth of Forty Mile Creek near Lake Ontario.
Map 1: Forty Mile Creek Park, this point of interest is located on 447 Elizabeth Street in Grimsby, Onatrio.
Map 2: Google Street View of Forty Mile Creek Park, located on on 447 Elizabeth Street in Grimsby, Onatrio.
Figure 1: Comparison of how Forty Mile Creek has developed over a span of 84 years.
The majority of Forty Mile Creek is surrounded by forest and provides a wide variety of plant and animal species. Plant Species such as tulip trees, pawpaw trees, flowering dogwood are commonly found within the forested area surrounding Forty Mile Creek (Marks, 2021). Grimsby is also known for its multiple different magnolia flower species. The natural urban plant community of dandelions are a very common occurrence within the Grimsby area. From a pollen analysis recorded at a very early period has demonstrated that distraught land had close association with plants of the open ground (Hough, 2004). Dandelions colonized the land during the Ice Age. Afforestation restricted their growth and supply, but during the development of cities and agriculture caused the dandelion plant community to thrive. Grimsby has lots of agricultural influence within the community especially on the upper escarpment which could have possibly reintroduced this plant species after the Ice Age. Forty Mile Creek supplies a great aquatic habitat for aquatic organisms such as Smallmouth Bass, King Salmon, Rainbow Trout, and Asian Carp. The Salmon and Trout species that are usually found within the creek during their spawning periods. King Salmon usually spawn in the early fall between the months of September and November (Video 1), while Rainbow trout spawn in early spring between the months of April and May whilst water temperatures slowly begin to rise (Image 4). The average King Salmon has a lifespan of 4 years due to their high amount of energy consumption and lengths of travel. Both Salmon and Trout that come to spawn at Forty Mile Creek usually live in Lake Ontario during the year as it provides them with more opportunity of life such as accessibility to food resources and shelter. From my own physical observation within the creek, the only species of fish that are present year-round are Smallmouth Bass and Asian Carp. The quality of wildlife within the Forty Mile Creek landscape is truly amazing as you may spot many different species of animals during a single visit. One observation I have made during a visit at my site was that there was a slight discoloration within the creeks water. Usually, the water is quite clear with a dark blue/green tint. During the spring and summer seasons, the maintenance and cultivation of crops is taken place by privately owned agricultural land. The majority of farmland in Grimsby is located on the top of the Escarpment, as this area possess large plots of open land. Forty Mile Creek's headwaters is located on the top of the escarpment where there are many privately owned pieces of land that run adjacent with the watershed. Discoloration of the creeks water may be caused by the fertilizer and pesticides that farms use to preserve their crops. When it rains during the agricultural season the run-off from these plots of land greatly affect the quality of water which generally affects the surrounding ecosystem. In the article (Hough, 2004) it states that privately owned land such as golf courses are built in valley and wetland areas which is an area of low-intensity use. These areas create complications in relation to the surrounding natural environment as many slopes and hills force the contaminated run-off water into nearby rivers, creeks, and streams. This demonstrates a similarity within agricultural land use around Forty Mile Creek, as farmers are unintentionally releasing contaminates into the natural ecosystem where native plants are species are dependent of the resources from the watershed. The Jefferson Salamander is a native amphibian within Southern Ontario region and has been classified as an endangered species by the Government of Ontario. The draining of wetlands in hot summers and urban development are the key threats to this specie of salamander (Government of Ontario, 2014). Another animal that is native to the Forty Mile Creek watershed is the Common Nighthawk. This specie is considered as a special concern, as they are close to becoming threated and possibly extinct due to terrestrial predators attacking their nests and the mass use of insecticides (Government of Ontario, 2014). The Atlantic Salmon population in Lake Ontario has been severely diminished due to development and industrial waste (US Department of Commerce, 2010). During the 1800s and early 1900s, industrialized areas began to quickly develop. They were mostly located around large bodies of water such as Lake Ontario which contributed to the poor quality of water within this period. Since then, the Government of Ontario, surrounding Municipalities, and private agencies have developed many remediation plans in order to help restore Lake Ontario.
Video 1: King Salmon moving upstream towards its desired spawning ground.
Forty Mile Creek is situated in a unique area known as the Niagara Peninsula. Locals commonly describe this area as the "mountain", but it is commonly recognized as the escarpment. Beamer Falls is a part of Forty Mile Creek that is positioned at the top of the Grimsby escarpment. This location is a well-known conservation area that is situated in a valley along the escarpment. The type of soil that Forty Mile Creek is surrounded by is known as lacustrine silty clay, 40-100cm of lacustrine silty clay over clay loam till, clay loam till, shallow soils with up to 100cm of soil over mainly dolostone bedrock, miscellaneous natural land units and in some areas small amounts of sand are present in the soil. Within the creek itself, it is made up of variable alluvial deposit on floorplains. This information was collected and used from the 1989 Generalized Soil Map of the Regional Municipality of Niagara (Map 3). The surrounding area of Forty Mile Creek is categorized as a level 2 soil sealing class. Due to development within the town, Gerd Wessolek states that an area like Grimsby has a "moderate sealing, block buildings, reconstruction areas after the second world war, average: 60% = class II" (Wessolek, 2008). This data above validates that roughly about 60% of Grimsby is made of sealed soil due to human development and the use of materials such as concrete, brick and asphalt. During the Holocene, climate began to slowly rise in temperature causing new landscapes and physical attributes to arise. The physical landscape of the Niagara Peninsula at this time was slowly altering into a stable environment as the Younger Dryas ended abruptly roughly around 10,000 BP (Tinkler, 1994). This demonstrates that after the glaciation period, the escarpment became stable in structure and has preserved its current physical condition since 10,000 BP. Since Forty Mile Creek runs through the heart of downtown Grimsby many man-made structures were developed around and over the creek. As of today, it is visible on Elm Street that a bridge was developed in order to provide motor vehicle access within the city. An embankment was also developed on both sides of Forty Mile Creek behind a business plaza in downtown Grimsby. Many other bridges such as the QEW North and Southbound are also built above the creek. Below these structures, large rocks were put in place in order to control the flow of water and for stability purposes.
Map 3: Display of the different types of soil that the Region of Niagara possesses.
In the present day, Forty Mile Creek is described as a sub watershed that is a part of the Lake Ontario Drainage area. Stream flow analysis from the Niagara Peninsula Source Protection Area shows that the creek is dominated by runoff processes (Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority, 2013). During the winter season, lots of snowmelt water is generated within the creek (Image 5). This is evident within Forty Mile Creek's biota as I described how agricultural land adjacent to the site supplies lots of contaminated runoff water from the use of pesticides and fertilizers. It has been estimated that the mass use of insecticides is contributed by urban areas as agricultural areas release a similar amount through runoff (Michael & Meyer, 2008). Within the Forty Mile Creek sub watershed, both urban and agricultural runoff is factored into the creek caused complication towards the neighbouring biota. As I described the Common Nighthawk's special concern, insecticides were one of the main issues relating to their depleting population. The runoff water created by adjacent agricultural and urban landscapes reveals that potential harm may be relased among the organisms that rely on Forty Mile Creeks natural resources. The Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority has validated that this sub watershed is dominated by runoff processes which proves that many unwanted pollutants are being drained within Lake Ontario. During the early Holocene between 9,000 and 8,400 years ago the flow of water between early Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River was established. This was formed by the Champlain Sea as it was declining in size about 10,000 years ago. Later, as the glaciated land began to melt, it caused water levels in Lake Ontario to significantly rise. Forty Mile Creek is surrounded by the QEW and many other roads which increases the locations overall impervious surface. These roadways distribute lots of runoff and channel the water into ditches as it continues to flow into nearby creeks and streams. The water runoff is higher in basins that have a larger amount of road surfaces (Alberti, 2008). This data displays similarity to the stream flow analysis conducted by the Niagara Peninsula Source Protection as they stated Forty Mile Creek as a highly dominated runoff area.
The town of Grimsby has been developing at a high rate over the last two decades. This has introduced many newly built waterfront condominiums and large residential neighbourhoods into the area. These newly built structures are kay factors that may have altered the microclimate within the Niagara region. In terms of heat absorption, the materials such as paved surfaces, bricks, stone and rooftops are all known to conduct heat faster than soils or vegetative surfaces. This means that the town will store more heat as its artificial surfaces are absorbing heat and reflecting it back at other surfaces (Hough, 2004). Even though Grimsby is a generally small town, the recent infrastructural transformations have caused climatic change as most of the adjacent land surrounding Forty Mile Creek was vacant prior to the town's expansion over the last 20 years. Heat absorption in the countryside is known to store heat in its upper layers (Hough, 2004). At my site, the location that is recognised as a natural heat absorption area would be Beamer Falls as it has a high elevation and it retains most of its heat. Usually, it is generally cool near the lower levels of these areas but In Forty Mile Creeks case, the creek runs through the downtown core which is an area of mass heat absorption and reflection. From my observations and research, it can be determined that the climate in Grimsby has increased in temperature due to human development and infrastructure. Urbanized areas are known to modify microclimates by altering the nature of land and generating heat (Alberti, 2008). With the mass installation of roadways and other impermeable surfaces causes modification within th surrounding lands nature environment and climate. The additional amount of heat absorption and reflection within urbanized areas create negative factors within the area's surrounding green areas. In the Niagara regions 'Adapting to Climate Change' report they have demonstrated that many areas within the region are being converted from vegetation to urban heat zones (Penney, 2012). The increasing use of asphalt and concrete is causing more areas prone to mass heat absorption and reflection which ultimately effects all the locations surrounding natural ecosystems.
Forty Mile Creek has lots of historical significance as studies have validated that an indigenous population was stationed within this area. Excavations I the town of Grimsby were made by a group of archaeologists in the late 20th century. From the items they have retrieved suggested that an Indigenous population was settled along the Forty Mile Creek between the Niagara Escarpment and Lake Ontario. Their findings were dated back to the 17thcentury which imposed that the Grimsby corridor was a great place for trade between the European and Indigenous people (Pengey, 1991). Before mass settlement was established in the Niagara region, Forty Mile Creek provided a very diverse amount of natural goods which could support many people within a village. Fish and wild plant species were used for medical use and nutrition (Project 40 Mile Creek, 2019). This area has influenced the creeks landscape over time as it could supply lots of natural resources for human use. Industrialization and hunting between the 1800s - early 1900s significantly affected the fish and wildlife population due to human actions.
After the arrival of European settlers, commercial and residential uses were greatly developed around Forty Mile Creek. Grimsby's fishing industry was very sufficient during the late 1800s. The Hand's Family owned most of the land surrounding Forty Mile Creek and developed their own commercial fishery. Fish such as lake trout, lake herring, whitefish, cisco, and Atlantic salmon were caught, filleted and packaged before being sent to nearby markets for sale. During this era, Forty Mile Creek was rich in terms of its resources, as it served as an ideal fishing supply area. Since then, invasive species and human development have created a decline in fish species found within Lake Ontario which made a devastating impact on the Ontario fishing industry. During the 1850s, the Grimsby Beach was a huge attraction to southern Ontario residents and noticed as a tourism hotspot. It was known for its excellent fishery and cottages along the Lake Ontario shoreline (Image 8). Due to the village's popularity at the time, more and more people started to migrate and reside within the town. Later in 1922, Grimsby was finally labeled as a town and slowly developed a downtown core (Image 7). The historical aspects of the township are still preserved in the downtown core till this day and reminds its residents and visitors of its historical significance through its pioneered architecture. (All data was retrieved from the Town of Grimsby and The Grimsby Museum archives).
Forty Mile Creek provides many educational and interpretive resources that are provided to the public. Informational plaques of Forty Mile Creeks historical features are displayed to the public on multiple different parts of the trail. The Grimsby Bicentennial Peace Garden is located at the end of the Forty Mile Creek near Lake Ontario where it has multiple plaques providing information about Grimsby's past thriving fishery. It also provides historical data which relates to the natural site's significance during the war of 1812. The mouth of Forty Mile Creek was used as a United States military camp where they rested and stored military equipment. After the battle of Stoney Creek, the Americans used this area to rest and were later invaded by the British. The plaques delivering this information demonstrated the importance of this area and how the recapture of this site saved other Canadian towns/cities from potential invasions by the American Army. The Bicentennial peace garden was built in 2012 to commemorate the 100 years of peace between Canada and the United States of America.
The Elizabeth Street Pump House is the only historical buildings that physically stands today (Image 9). It was built in 1905 as a municipal waterworks facility and by the early 1990s it was put out of service. Since the closure of the pump house, it was restored in 2001 and was converted into a rental facility that can used for art programs, family gatherings and workshops (Town of Grimsby, 2018). The Hand's Family commercial fishery was located on the opposite side of Forty Mile Creek up until 1965 as it was tragically burnt by a fire. Since then, the Forty Mile Creek Pond was converted into today's Foran's Marina. In 2005, the marina decided to develop residential condominiums which provides accessibility towards a beautiful view of the lake and personal dock. The early architectural heritage has not been preserved physically but can viewed in Grimsby history museum which has images of historical buildings and landmarks across the town.
Forty Mile Creek Park provides a variation of recreational opportunities such as paddle boarding lessons and a public canoe/kayak launch (Image 10). A municipal dog park and trail are also found at this location (Image 11 &12). The side-trail is about 1.7km in length and connects to Niagara peninsulas Bruce Trail. A pier is also located at the park but has been recently closed due to its current condition. A large parking area is also available for the community which provides a vast amount of room. This location is formally controlled as the Town of Grimsby completely operates and maintains the Forty Mile Creek Park area.
Forty Mile Creek is controlled by the municipality of Grimsby, specifically from the mouth of the creek located at Lake Ontario up until the Beamer Falls. The waterfall is protected by the Ontario Conservation Authority which is known as a watershed management agency that is in alliance with the provincial and municipal governments. The ministry of natural resources controls the fishing regulations. Fishing during the spawning seasons of trout and salmon species is limited at Forty Mile Creek, as the legal fishing spots are only located between Queen Elizabeth Highway and Lake Ontario.
Forty Mile Creek travels through the downtown core of Grimsby and all the surrounding land looks to be developed around the entirety of the creek. For example, near the bottom of the escarpment on Elm Street (Near Downtown Grimsby) Forty Mile Creek runs bellow the road. The municipality built a bridge in order to keep this area in its natural state and to limit any human interference. Moving downstream the creek runs behind a developed business plaza. This area has retaining walls on each side of the creek which are about 7 feet in height. From my own observations and knowledge, I think it is designed to keep people away from this area and limit potential destruction of this natural ecosystem. Over the years, the Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) have been on strict surveillance during the spawning seasons of Salmon (Fall Season) and Rainbow Trout (Spring Season). Due to Forty Mile Creek having a huge manmade wall by Elm Street bridge, the fish are unable to move further upstream during their spawning period. This wall causes hundreds of fish to be stacked within a small area. From this location all the way downstream to the QEW, the MNR has deemed this spot illegal as it interferes with the fishes spawning cycle. Every year, there is a large group of anglers come from out of the region to fish Forty Mile Creek. They get ticketed for fishing in the illegal fishing zone due to their lack of knowledge of the fishing regulations and potential harm they are causing within fish population. This is another reason why I think those retaining walls were installed behind the business plaza in downtown Grimsby. Its initial purpose is to keep the creek protected from natural and human damage. The Town of Grimsby and MNR have made the creek inaccessible from QEW to the escarpment. The surrounding land around the creek is fenced off, has large drop offs on each side of the creek banks, dense groups of vegetation and limited number of unmarked trails. It is clearly noticeable that municipality and MNR are keen on preserving the natural state of Forty Mile Creek.
Forty Mile Creek falls under the jurisdiction of the Town of Grimsby's Official Plan (Map 5). It works in accordance with the Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority (Map 4), Greenbelt Plan, and Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the creeks environmental protection area designation and vegetation protection zones, it does not permit any development, site alteration, and non-linear infrastructure. This is enforced in order to follow the Greenbelt Plan. Before any development or changes are made within this area an environmental impact study must be conducted and proposed to the Town in consultation and Niagara Conservation Authority. If this assessment is passed it allows developers to continue with their operations within Forty Mile Creek. The Ministry of Natural Resources are responsible for fish habitats. Since Forty Mile Creek is found within the Greenbelt plan it requires a 30m vegetation buffer on each side of the stream/river to provide these aquatic organisms with a safe and healthy environment. Regarding the Greenbelt Plan area any proposed development and site alteration within 150m of an Environmental Protection Area requires a natural heritage evaluation and hydrological evaluation that provides suitable vegetation protection zone. With the development and site alteration of adjacent lands, the applicant must submit a Tree Saving Plan. It will be prepared by the Regional Tree and Forest Conservation By-law and will be supervised by a member of the Ontario Professional Forestry Association. The zoning and official plan controls that have been put in place have made the overall area of Forty Mile Creek very protected. The cost of development would be too high within areas close to escarpment as many tests and proposals would have to be conducted before starting construction or any site alterations. All the regulations and zoning rules within the Official Plan of Grimsby demonstrates that the municipality and its partners want to protect and preserve the Forty Mile Creek watershed as they want this area free from any contamination and human domination.
Most of the Forty Mile Creek landscape is managed by the Town of Grimsby. They perform regular procedures such as landscaping, sustainable horticulture and general maintenance within their Forty Mile Creek Park. Every year the 1812 Bicentennial Peace Garden gets newly panted flowers and hedge trimming. This provides great aesthetic features for the community to enjoy and outlines the significance within this landscape. During the spring, the side-trail near Forty Mile Creek Park is cleaned up of broken branches, leaves and any other debris found on the trail. General trail maintenance is also performed by the Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority at the Beamer Falls location.
(Information was retrieved from the Town of Grimsby's Offical Plan)
Adjacent land use such as the Bruce Trail have been influential towards Forty Mile creek. The municipality of Grimsby developed a side trail at the mouth of Forty Mile Creek in order to promote the landscapes surrounding opportunities. The Bruce Trail interconnects with Forty Mile Creek at the top of Beamer Falls as it is situated on the Niagara Escarpment. Recreational use has been a big influential factor within changing the landscape over time. Trails have been consistently monitored, analyzed for safety and maintained to promote Grimsby adventurous openings. Multiple parks have been created in order to provide its residents and visitors with historical information and an opportunity to use this natural land to its full potential. Three municipal parks are located along Forty Mile Creek in the lower escarpment as Beamer Falls is operated and maintained by the Niagara Conservation Authority. Forty Mile Creek is intersected by many roadways and the QEW, which (Alberti, 2008) states a threat to the pre-existing land cover as infrastructure is more focused on socioeconomic aspects such as cost-efficient transportation and more accessibility. Urban parks and recreational areas were originally designed for people within urbanized areas to get a glimpse of a rural atmosphere. The destruction of water quality linked towards fertilizer and pesticide run-off cause socioeconomic patterns that influence more development as the recreational land may be converted into a different use (Grimm et al., 2000). As innovation is interrogated within our surrounding municipalities and landscapes, it influences change upon pre-existing land uses which can ultimately destroy is ecological resources for biota relying on these specific areas.
Town of Grimsby
160 Livingston Avenue,
Grimsby, ON,
L3M 4G3,
Canada
T.: 905-945-9634
Greenbelt Plan
#404 - 720 Bathurst Street
Toronto, Ontario
M5S 2R4
Phone: 416-960-0001
Fax: 416-960-0030
Hours: 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM
Research & Policy
ashortly@greenbelt.ca
Grants & Programs
program@greenbelt.ca
Donations & Fundraising
cweldon@greenbelt.ca
Media Inquiries - (Michael Young)
media@greenbelt.ca
Communications and Engagement
pndebele@greenbelt.ca
Office of the CEO
ndolker@greenbelt.ca
Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority
250 Thorold Road West; 3rd Floor
Welland, ON L3C 3W2
Phone: 905-788-3135
Fax: 905-788-1121
OFFICE OF CAO / SECRETARY TREASURER - 905-788-3135
COMMUNICATIONS - 905-788-3135
CORPORATE SERVICES - 905-788-3135
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT - 905-788-3135
LAND MANAGEMENT - 905-788-3135
Ministry of Natural Resources
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Maps:
Google Maps of Forty Mile Creek Park. (2021). Google Maps. map. Retrieved from https://www.google.ca/maps/place/Forty+Mile+Creek+...@43.2029095,-79.5538895,17z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x882caf7f12e54bcf:0x86161be5d75829fa!8m2!3d43.2034648!4d-79.5529454.
Google Maps Street View. (2021). Google Maps. map. Retrieved from https://www.google.ca/maps/@43.2042906,-79.553333,3a,75y,56.84h,90.24t/data=!3m6!1e1!3m4!1soY-FVs8i0fCGjdNl4PgT8Q!2e0!7i13312!8i6656.
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(Accessed 13/11/2021).
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Images:
Thumbnail Image: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 1: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 2: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 3: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 4: Manazzone, T. (2021, May 1). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 5: Manazzone, T. (2021, December 29). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 6: Manazzone, T. (2021, July 22). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 7: Downtown Grimsby in the 1920s. (2017). photograph, Grimsby. Retrieved from https://www.grimsbyhistoricalsociety.com/.
Image 8: Grimsby Beach Gingerbread Cottages. (2018). Grimsby. photograph, Grimsby. Retrieved from https://www.grimsby.ca/en/parks-recreation-culture....
Image 9: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 10: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 11: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 12: Manazzone, T. (2021, September 18). Forty Mile Creek, Grimsby, Onatrio Canada.
Image 13: Grimsby Museum. (n.d.). Hand's Fishing Facility. photograph, Grimsby, Ontario.
Video:
Forty Mile Creek - Fall Salmon Run. (2021). Youtube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQ36wjwKU_w.
This Local Landscape Report was prepared by [Tomas Manazzone] for the Brock University course TMGT 2P94: Human Dominated Ecosystems on November 14, 2021.
All copyrights for cited material rest with the original copyright owners.
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