Abstract- Local Landscape Report:

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters (Sulphur Springs Drive)

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is located in the Niagara Peninsula, beginning at Sulphur Springs Drive in Pelham Ontario. This is the start of one of the most symbolic tributaries in the Niagara Region. The Headwaters of Twelve Mile Creek stretch from the Effingham region of Pelham, through to Martindale Pond in Port Dalhousie where it empties into Lake Ontario. The creek passes through Short Hills Provincial Park, as well as through the Niagara Escarpment, eventually flowing into St. Catharines where the creek is used for irrigation and power. The major use of Twelve Mile Creek revolves around municipal and industrial services. However, it also serves as a place for recreational activities. The creek provides fresh drinking water for parts of the Niagara Region, is used for shipping purposes, and also as a discharge for effluents. Twelve Mile Creek made its first significant appearance in the war of 1812, when military vessels used this tributary as a place to land and dock their ships. The year 1827 marked the start of the shipbuilding industry on the creek, where the construction of an 80 foot long canal boat was built, which led to many future ship builds. Through the years Twelve Mile Creek has significantly aided human advancement, as it has and still is providing the people of the Niagara region with basic modern necessities. Due to the excessive amount of human exposure to the Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters, there is cause for concern. This stream is one of the last forest shaded cold water trout streams in the Niagara Peninsula, which is one of many reasons why it must be protected. The stream is also vulnerable to soil erosion, sedimentation, and road salt contamination due to its close proximity to the Sulphur Springs Drive road. Humans may still use this creek as a source of power, irrigation, water supply and such, however one must do it sustainably so this ecosystem will last for many more years to come.

Literature Sources

Ayotte, A., & Wood, I. (2012). Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters (Sulphur Spring Drive). Niagara Greenbelt: Brock University and Tourism Niagara. Retrieved September 19th, 2016, fromhttp://www.niagaragreenbelt.com/listings/73-natural-habitats-a-features/781-twelve-mile-creek-headwaters-at-sulphur-springs-drive.html

Campbell, I. T. (1996, January). Environmental assessment and biomonitoring of the Twelve Mile Creek watershed, Niagara Peninsula, Ontario. Brock University Department of Earth Sciences. Retrieved September 18th, 2016, from http://dr.library.brocku.ca.proxy.library.brocku.ca/handle/10464/1855 .

Hughes, A. (2008, March). Looking Back... with Alun Hughes: Early Shipbuilding on the Twelve. Newsletter of the Historical Society of St Catharines, Pg 8-10. Retrieved September 18th, 2016, from https://brocku.ca/webfm_send/31322.

Municipality: Pelham, Ontario, Canada.

Local area name: Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters

Other identifying names or descriptions: Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters on Sulphur Springs Drive

Latitude and longitude: 43° 04'49.08" N 79° 18'08.54" W

Physical Dimensions

Length: 12m/19km

Width:1-6m AVG

Surface Area: Extends 12km

Elevation: 143 m AVG

Highest: 171 M

Lowest point: 117 M

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is located on Sulphur Springs Drive in Pelham, Ontario, Canada. The headwaters is a symbolic tributary referring to it's ecological and historical features. The stream flows through the Niagara peninsula, beginning in the Effingham region of Pelham. It continues to meander its way through Short Hills Provincial Park, then widens in the Niagara Escarpment. The creek progresses into St. Catharine's, and eventually ends in Martindale Pond in Port Dalhousie, where it empties into Lake Ontario (Ayotte & Wood, 2012). The creek made its first historical significant appearance in the War of 1812 as military vessels landed along the stream. In 1827 Twelve Mile creek also made a momentous appearance, which marked the start of the shipbuilding industry in the Niagara Region (Hughes, 2008). Further the headwaters of Twelve Mile creek is the last forest shaded cold water trout stream in the area, which presents why this landscape is so important in terms of ecology (Ayotte & Wood, 2012). This report will specifically look at the Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters (Upper), however will contrast with the lower portion of the creek (Lower) and how its features have evolved overtime due to human impacts.

Map 1:Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters (Watershed) and surrounding creeks (Trout Unlimited Canada, 2014).

Map 2: Twelve Mile Creek on Sulphur Springs Drive

Map 3: Twelve Mile Creek, Google Street View

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is a landscape which is brimming with unspoiled natural features. Although the creek has experienced human impacts, many native species of biota still inhabit this area. The native plant community as defined by Hough, states that native plants are remnants of old forests, which have survived, even though being altered in a certain way (eg. Human Impacts). These native species provide tons of insightful and informational facts about the natural history of the specified environment (Hough, 2010, p.90).Twelve Mile Creek also inhabits many naturalized urban plants. These are species of biota which have adapted to there environment without human influence (Hough, 2010, p.90). The environment of Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters comprises of areas of untouched wilderness as well as human influenced nature, due to a variety of land uses.

The total natural area surrounding Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is 58.55km squared, with 52.7% Wooded, 6.6% Wetland, and 5.6% Swamp (NPCA, 2012). The plant life in this environment play a very important role as the Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority claims; "plants provide a link for distributing the soil's minerals, water and the sun's energy to the remaining species in the ecosystem chain, it is the plant types and location which can assist in determining how healthy the watershed is" (NPCA, 2000). The upper valley alongside Twelve Mile Creek consists of Beech forests and the lower valley consists of Sugar Maple, Tulip Trees, and mixed forests of Eastern Hemlock, and American Beech. The bottomlands are occupied by skunk Cabbage, meadow marshes, thicket swamps of Spicebush and alders, and forests of walnut, Red and Sugar maples, Yellow Birch and White Pine (Important Bird Areas, 2016). In total there are 400-500 species of plant which inhabit this environment. With so much vegetation surrounding the area, it makes for a superb habitat for wildlife.Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is home to over 300 bird species, 53 mammal species, and 59 species of fish. The most extrusive bird species which this landscape supports include; the Red-shouldered Hawk (nationally vulnerable), American Woodcock, Eastern Screech-Owl, Ruby-throated Hummingbird, Red-bellied Woodpecker, Tufted Titmouse, Eastern Wood-Pewee, Carolina Wren, Wood Thrush, Yellow-throated Vireo, Blue-winged Warbler, Pine Warbler, Cerulean Warbler (nationally vulnerable), Scarlet Tanager, Eastern Towhee, and Field Sparrow (Important Bird Areas, 2016). Prominent mammal species which inhabit the area include squirrels, skunks, racoons, muskrats, and whitetail deer (NPCA, 2012). As stated, Twelve Mile Creek is the last forest shaded cold water trout stream in the Niagara Region, which means fish flourish here. This stream also has the last self sustaining Brook Trout Population in Niagara and it's surrounding area (Ayotte & Wood, 2012). The most populated fish which inhabit the creek include Brook Trout, Northern Pike, various Perch, and minnows (NPCA, 2012).Although wildlife and plant life prosper in this environment, human impacts have pushed certain species to the endangered list. Species which are endangered include the birds stated up which are nationally vulnerable as well as the Grey fox, Barn owl, Yellow breasted chat, Redside dace, American Eel, Eastern Milkshake, Butternut and Eastern Flowering Dogwood. A significant factor which has assisted in these species becoming endangered is road salt contamination. Twelve Mile Creek runs extremely close to Sulphur Springs Drive, and in the winter the salt manages it's way into the water. In doing so, it damages the plant and wildlife (Ayotte & Wood, 2012). Further other impacts which have aided to these species becoming endangered include; "poorly managed logging, housing development, erosion and habitat loss associated with heavy use of ridge trails by motorbikes and all-terrain vehicles, and invasion by non-native species, such as the Garlic Mustard" (Important Bird Areas, 2016). This environment inhabits wildlife/plant life, and human life which both coexist together, however humans have hindered the natural landscape.

The term geomorphology is the study of the Earth's physical features and it's surface processes. The environment of Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters possesses many significant physical features. The creek is located in a valley and is largely covered by glacier debris from Fonthill Kame (Important Bird Areas, 2016). Fonthill Kame is a moraine which is the highest point of elevation in the Niagara Region (Ayotte & Wood, 2012). The valley consists of many different uplands and ridges which span all across the creek. The bottomlands of the valley also consist of marshes and swamps (Important Bird Areas, 2016). Twelve Mile Creek runs through the Niagara Escarpment as well, which is the one of the World's unique natural wonders.The escarpment consists of thick layers of sedimentary rock, soft shale, sandstone, limestone and was created from glacial movement (Ontario's Niagara Escarpment, 2016).

The total area of Twelve Mile Creek compromises of 0.5% Upland escarpment, 34% Developed areas, 26% Mixed clay and loam, 4.5% Mixed sand and loam, 30% Mixed silt and loam, 0.1% Organic soils, and 4.5% Water (NPCA, 2012). Twelve Mile Creek also sits on the Haldimand clay plain, which lies between the Niagara Escarpment and Lake Erie. Many ares surrounding the creek are used for agriculture due to the pure richness of the soil which the clay obtains.

As stated, some land which surrounds Twelve Mile Creek is residential (Developed), meaning roads must be present in these areas. Roads such as Sulphur Springs Drive follow extremely close to the creek, which have begin to damage the soil and the river bed. With the roads being so close to the water, it makes the creek vulnerable to soil erosion, and sedimentation (Ayotte & Wood, 2012). The major roads which run alongside the creek are strictly dirt and gravel, and most roads are closed in the winter months. However roads which lead to residential homes stay open year round. This allows the town to plow and salt the road through the colder months, resulting in significant road salt contamination, which damages the Biota of Twelve Mile Creek (Ayotte & Wood, 2012).

Through the years, Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters has maintained an environment strictly around nature, however human impacts such as logging and residential construction is beginning to hinder the wildlife and plantlike of this area (Important Bird Areas, 2016).

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is a body of water which flows from Pelham and eventually ends in lake Ontario. Clearly this environment is dominated by hydrological processes as this environment survives off the creek. Twelve Mile Creek is a watershed, which the beech forests in the area protect. Forests have the ability to stabilize slopes, minimize erosion, reduce sediment inputs to the stream as well as maintain the quality of water (Hough, 2010, pp.27). The hydrological cycle also plays a very important role which can be demonstrated through Figure 1.

Forest vegetation also has the ability to influence the movement of the water from the atmosphere to the earth and back, through reducing peaks and flooding while maintaining flow in dry seasons (Hough, 2010, pp.27). The forest which surrounds the creek has the power of maintaining the health and flow of the river.

The water in this area experiences many scenarios of vulnerably due to human and natural impacts resulting in contamination as well as extinction of species. As the creek passes through the Niagara Escarpment, bedrock outcrops have made it an obstacle for the overburden to provide the groundwater with the right amount of protection resulting in bacteria, sediment and other insoluble forms of contaminants. If the overburden were thicker the bacteria would become trapped and filtered within the soil pores. Futher, the openings in the fractured bedrock also create a direct passage for surface water and contaminants to groundwater resources (NPCA, 2012). The majority of water from Twelve Mile Creek is also used for municipal uses, as only 3% of residents whom live around the creek have private wells. The water used by the municipality is generally for drinking water, and there have been a few cases of contamination due to Nitrate (NPCA, 2012). The drinking water has experienced nitrate contamination due to land use from agriculture and plowing. The contaminated water even has the capability of destroying habitats and wildlife.

Twelve Mile Creek is a landscape which is tremendously impacted by the climate, as the environment is part of the climate/microclimate. Climates/microclimates consists of solar radiation, wind precipitation, temperature, and humidity, all of which is created by the land, topography, water and plants (Hough, 2010, p189). The environment of Twelve Mile Creek consists of many plant species and water which are important elements in making up the climate. Vegetation such as plants have the ability to control solar radiation on the ground, which allows heat to be radiated back to the ground surface (Hough, 2010, p189). The forests of Twelve Mile Creek also play a huge role in absorbing light, known as the albedo effect, which is the percentage of light reflected back to the atmosphere. If more light is reflected the colder the temperatures will be. The creek itself also is a significant part of the climate as bodies of water have the ability to absorb and store solar energy. The water is then evaporated into the atmosphere, where it converts energy from the sun into latent heat, which lowers air temperatures (Hough, 2010, p190). Further, the slopes of the escarpment effect the wind direction and air temperatures as it passes through the Twelve Mile Creek landscape.

Although Twelve Mile Creek is a natural landscape, residential homes due impact the microclimate slightly. Residential buildings impact the climate through the slowing down of winds, resulting in the temperatures changing to a certain extent. Other human impacts which have altered the climate include logging. As more and more trees are taken down, the less heat is absorbed into the landscape. Twelve Mile Creek may become colder because of the amount of light reflected back to the atmosphere due to the lack of forest.

Twelve Mile Creek along with surrounding areas have a continental climate, meaning that temperatures fluctuate due to the proximity to a water body. Twelve Mile Creek on average has warm summer temperatures around 27 degrees celsius, and cold winter temperatures around -5 degrees celsius (Niagara Frontier, 2012).

(Niagara Region Climate)

Twelve Mile Creek made its first significant appearance in the 1800s. The headwaters of the creek however remained a natural ecosystem free from human influences for many more years. The early to mid 1800s are the years which essentially put Twelve Mile Creek on the Map. In the year 1812, during the War of 1812, a military presence was placed on the creek and throughout other areas of the Niagara Region. The War of 1812 was a military conflict between the United States of America and the United Kingdom, its North American colonies, and its Native American allies. During the war many military vessels used Twelve Mile Creek for transportation as well as docking there ships (Hughes, 2008). 1827 also marks an important time in history for the creek, referring to the shipbuilding industry. During 1827 an 80 foot long canal boat was constructed on the Twelve, which led to many more builds, and eventually establishing Shickluna Shipyards (Hughes, 2008). The shipyard remained a powerful shipbuilder for the Great lakes until the 1890s (Ayotte & Wood, 2012).

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters became a significant contributor to the municipalities in the 1900s. Twelve Mile creek began serving the community as a fresh reliable drinking source and still is today as only 3% of residents have private wells (NPCA, 2012). The creek is also historically known for supplying water to farmland for irrigation and for generating power for many of the mills and plants in the Niagara Region. Two important mills include Morningstar Mill and Decew Power Generating Station. The Morning Star Mill is currently a heritage site but was once a successful mill which made flour (Bott, 2016). The Decew Power Generating Station opened in 1898 and is the oldest continually running hydroelectric power generating station in Canada (Niagara Greenbelt, 2012). This plant uses water from Twelve Mile Creek to facilitate power through parts of the Niagara Region. The old Welland Canal also has ties with the creek as the canal was routed by means of the Twelve. The headwaters of Twelve Mile Creek also provide areas for residential homes, which can range from bungalows to mansions. When residential buildings were built alongside the creek, roads also were constructed. The roads built are extremely close to the creek and have caused many detrimental effects to the creek banks such as soil erosion (Ayotte & Wood, 2012).

Today the headwaters main use besides fresh drinking water revolves around recreational activities. Trails, which surround the creek make it great for activities such as biking, fishing, hiking, jogging, and horseback riding. Mountain biking is a really popular activity as the trails offer single-track and gravel packed roads which are good for advanced and beginner riders (NPCA, 2012). The summer months also make the creek a great place for swimming and tubing. With so many things to do Twelve Mile Creek is even a tourist destination due to its astonishing beauty, ecology, and recreational activities.

(Twelve Mile Creek (Main Creek, not Headwaters) Lock 2 over Welland Canal)

Education / Interpretation:

Architectural Heritage:

The environment has no significant architectural heritage but a important natural heritage. The headwaters of Twelve Mile Creek is and must be protected as it is the last forest shaded trout stream in the Niagara Region.

Recreational Uses:

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters offers many recreational opportunities ranging from jurisdictional authority to informal activities. Certain recreational uses which are governed by the municipality include biking and hiking trails. These paths follow alongside the creek and make its great spot for individuals to get outside and exercise. Many of the trails are also informal as they have been made by individuals constantly walking through the landscape. In some parts of the creek in Short Hills, horseback riding is also offered which is governed by the municipality. Fishing is the biggest activity which the creek is known for which must be ran by the government as fishing is certain rules and regulations. Lastly the Twelve can be used for swimming, tubing, and kayaking in the summer months (NPCA, 2012).

(Runner on trails which run alongside Twelve Mile Creek)

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is governed by the Niagara Region in southern Ontario. The headwaters begin in the municipality of Pelham and eventually make its way down into the city of St Catharines. As the creek flows throughout the region it also becomes part of Short Hills Provincial park as well as St Johns Conservation Area. This area is used for fishing and wildlife sightings (NPCA, 2015). Twelve Mile Creek is also considered a Great Lakes basin as the creek acts as an outlet to Lake Ontario.

Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters is a landscape filled with unspoiled natural features which also means it must be protected. An agency which works throughout the Niagara Region focusing on managing the impact of human activities on the watersheds in the region is the Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority. The NPCA looks after the headwaters of Twelve Mile as they conduct monthly or annual studies on the creeks health as well as its surrounding environment. Further Twelve Mile Creek is also apart of the Greenbelt foundation, which its main goal is to; "help keep farmers successful, strengthen local economies, and protect and grow natural features" (Greenbelt, 2016). Not only is Twelve Mile Creek looked after by the the NPCA and the Greenbelt foundation but also the Niagara Escarpment Commission. As the headwaters flow down river, it enters the escarpment which gives authority to the Niagara Escarpment Commission. The commissions job is to preserve the Escarpment as a natural landscape (Ontario's Niagara Escarpment, 2016). Due to the amount of agencies which are administered to manage the headwaters should be protected for many more years to come.

Twelve Mile Creek has many areas of public access which include trails as well as designated fishing spots, however some areas are considered private due to residential properties. Many homes back on to the creek, which give them ownership of land in from of Twelve Mile Creek. Many farmers also have fields which run alongside the creek which give them jurisdiction of land along the creek.

The landscape of Twelve Mile Creek does not exist in isolation and over the years has redeveloped due to human influences and disturbances. Although the landscape is considered a natural environment it also has areas of urbanization due to recreational trails, residential buildings, bridges, and roads.These resources for land usage have interacting heterogeneous components, which have lead to patterns, resulting in evolution and change of the landscape (Alberti, 2008, p93). The trails which are located along the creek have promoted tourism in the Niagara Region, which introduce more people to Twelve Mile Creek, creating a stronger human impact. Bridges and roads also have created connectivity within the environment which allows individuals to travel effortlessly through the landscape. Lastly residential buildings such as homes have brought numerous people to the Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters area, as a home is a place where individuals reside for long periods of time.

Brock University
500 Glenridge Avenue
St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
L2S 3A1
Phone: 905-688-5550

District School Board of Niagara
191 Carlton Street, St. Catharines
Ontario L2R 7P4
Phone: 905-641-1550

The Historical Society of St. Catharines
Box 25017
221 Glendale Ave., Pen Centre
St. Catharines, ON L2T 4C4

Morning Star Mills
2714 Decew Road, St. Catharines, Ontario
Phone: 905-688-6050

Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority
250 Thorold Road West; 3rd Floor
Welland, ON L3C 3W2
Phone: 905-788-3135
Fax: 905-788-1121
info@npca.ca

Niagara Escarpment Commission
99 King Street East, P.O. Box 308
Thornbury, ON N0H 2P0
Telephone: 519-599-3340
Fax: 519-599-6326
Contact for Niagara Region: Martin Kilian
Phone: 905-877-7524
E-mail: martin.kilian@ontario.ca

Niagara Greenbelt Foundation
4th Floor, C Block
Mackenzie-Chown Building
Brock University
500 Glenridge Avenue

Niagara Falls Public Library
4848 Victoria Avenue
Niagara Falls, Ontario L2E 4C5
Phone: 905-356-8080

Literature Cited:

Alberti, M. (2008). Landscape Signatures. In Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating humans and ecological processes in urban ecosystems (pp. 93-112). New York: Springer.Brock University Library Catalogue, EBSCOhost. Retrieved November 2nd 2016.

Alberti, M. (2008). Hydrological Processes. In Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating humans and ecological processes in urban ecosystems (pp. 133-161). New York: Springer. Brock University Library Catalogue, EBSCOhost.Retrieved November 2nd 2016.

All About Birds. (2015). Yellow Breasted Chat. Cornell University. Retrieved November 2nd 2016 from

https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Yellow-breaste....

Ayotte, A., & Wood, I. (2012). Twelve Mile Creek Headwaters (Sulphur Spring Drive). Niagara Greenbelt: Brock University and Tourism Niagara. Retrieved September 19th, 2016, fromhttp://www.niagaragreenbelt.com/listings/73-natura...

Barn Owl. (2016). Retrieved October 25th from http://pcwallart.com/barn-owl-wallpaper-1.html

Bott, John. (2016). Morningstar Mill, Decew Falls, St. Catharines. Retrieved November 4th 2016 from http://www.morningstarmill.ca

Brock University. (2016). Map Library. 1934 Niagara Region Map. Retrieved November 9th 2016.

Brock University. (2016). Niagara Air Photo Index. Retrieved November 9th 2016 from

Campbell, I. T. (1996, January). Environmental assessment and biomonitoring of the Twelve Mile Creek watershed, Niagara Peninsula, Ontario. Brock University Department of Earth Sciences. Retrieved September 18th, 2016, from http://dr.library.brocku.ca.proxy.library.brocku.c... .

District School Board of Niagara. (2016). St. Johns Outdoors Studies Centre. Retrieved November 4th 2016 from http://www.dsbn.org/summerheat/default.aspx?id=122...

Environment and Climate Change Canada. (2013, September). The Hydrological Cycle. Retrieved November 2nd 2016 from

https://www.ec.gc.ca/eau-water/default.asp?lang=En....

Google Earth. (2016). Satellite Images. Retrieved October 28th 2016 from Google Earth Software.

Google Maps. (2016). Map and Street View Images. Retrieved October 28th from https://www.google.ca/maps/place/Sulphur+Spring+Dr,

Grey Fox. (2012). Retrieved November 4th 2016 from https://prezi.com/tleat3mi9xmt/wildlife-profile-gr...

Hough, M. (2004). Plants and Plant Communities. Cities and Natural Process : A Basis for Sustainability. (pp.86- 129). (EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost (accessed November 24th, 2016). Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.proxy.library.brocku.ca...

McBride, D. (2013, May). Retrieved November 1st 2016, from http://www.panoramio.com/photo/90606983.

Niagara Falls Public Library. (1905). Lock 2 at Twelve Mile Creek. Retrieved November 9th 2016 from http://www.nflibrary.ca/nfplindex/show.asp?b=1&id=...

Niagara Frontier. Niagara Falls Weather and Climate. Retrieved October 28th 2016 from http://www.niagarafrontier.com/weather.html

Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority. (2012). Twelve Mile Creek 2012 Watershed Report Card. Retrieved October 16th 2016 from https://npca.ca/sites/default/files/TwelveMileCree...

Niagara Peninsula Conservation Authority. (2015). St. Johns. Retrieved October 28th 2016 from https://npca.ca/conservation-areas/st-johns

Niagara Runner. (2016). Retrieved November 8th 2016 from https://niagararunner.wordpress.com/2012/10/06/12-...

Ontario. (2016). Eastern Flowering Dogwood. Retrieved November 2nd 2016 from eastern flowering dogwood

Ontario Nature. (2016). Reside Dace. Retrieved November 4th from https://www.ontarionature.org/protect/campaigns/re...

Ontario's Niagara Escarpment. (2016). Geology. Retrieved October 28th 2016 from http://www.escarpment.org/about/geology/index.php

Ontario Roadtrip. (2011). Climate. Retrieved November 8th 2016 from http://ss10ontariotimliu.blogspot.ca/2011/06/final...

Trout Unlimited Canada. (May, 2014). Retrieved November 1st 2016, from http://shorthillsbrooktroutproject.weebly.com/proj....

This Local Landscape Report was prepared by Brayden Mills (5811112) for the Brock University course TOUR 2P94: Human Dominated Ecosystems on November 11th, 2016.

All copyrights for cited material rest with the original copyright owners.